Sentinel lymph node surgery after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is accurate and reduces the need for axillary dissection in breast cancer patients

The Prevalence of Sentinel Lymph Node Positivity and Implications for the Utility of Frozen Section Diagnosis Following Neoadjuvant Systemic Therapy in Patients with Clinically Node-Negative HER2-Positive or Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

Axillary dissection is the standard of care for patients with positive sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) following neoadjuvant systemic therapy. Frozen section can provide intraoperative information regarding the need for axillary dissection during the index operation. However, there are limited data on the utility of frozen section in patients with clinically node-negative (cN0) HER2-positive or triple-negative breast cancer.

METHODS

We conducted a single-institution observational cohort study including patients with non-inflammatory, cN0, HER2-positive or triple-negative breast cancer treated with neoadjuvant systemic therapy between 2015 and 2019. We estimated the prevalence of SLN positivity and the diagnostic test characteristics of SLN frozen section.

RESULTS

Overall, 662 patients were eligible for inclusion, and 44 patients had one or more positive SLNs (prevalence: 6.6%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.9-8.8). There were 490 (74.0%) patients who had intraoperative frozen section, and 19 (3.9%) tested positive among 33 (6.7%) with positive final pathology. Frozen section sensitivity was 57.6% (95% CI 39.2-74.5), specificity was 100% (95% CI 99.2-100), positive predictive value was 100% (95% CI 82.4-100), and negative predictive value was 97.0% (95% CI 95.1-98.4). The sensitivity of frozen section for detection of micrometastases or isolated tumor cells was 35.3% (95% CI 14.2-61.7).

CONCLUSION

In patients with cN0 HER2-positive or triple-negative breast cancer who have been treated with neoadjuvant therapy, positive SLNs are uncommon and frozen section sensitivity is modest. Decisions to defer SLN evaluation to final pathology, which may be reasonable in many settings, can be informed, in part, by these findings.

Clipping the Positive Lymph Node in Patients with Clinically Node Positive Breast Cancer Treated with Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy: Impact on Axillary Surgery in the ISPY-2 Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

For patients with clinically node-positive (cN+) breast cancer undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC), retrieving previously clipped, biopsy-proven positive lymph nodes during sentinel lymph node biopsy [i.e., targeted axillary dissection (TAD)] may reduce false negative rates. However, the overall utilization and impact of clipping positive nodes remains uncertain.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed cN+ ISPY-2 patients (2011-2022) undergoing axillary surgery after NAC. We evaluated trends in node clipping and associations with type of axillary surgery [sentinel lymph node (SLN) only, SLN and axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), or ALND only] and event-free survival (EFS) in patients that were cN+ on a NAC trial.

RESULTS

Among 801 cN+ patients, 161 (20.1%) had pre-NAC clip placement in the positive node. The proportion of patients that were cN+ undergoing clip placement increased from 2.4 to 36.2% between 2011 and 2021. Multivariable logistic regression showed nodal clipping was independently associated with higher odds of SLN-only surgery [odds ratio (OR) 4.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.8-6.8, p < 0.001]. This was also true among patients with residual pathologically node-positive (pN+) disease. Completion ALND rate did not differ based on clip retrieval success. No significant differences in EFS were observed in those with or without clip placement, both with or without successful clip retrieval [hazard ratio (HR) 0.85, 95% CI 0.4-1.7, p = 0.7; HR 1.8, 95% CI 0.5-6.0, p = 0.3, respectively].

CONCLUSION

Clip placement in the positive lymph node before NAC is increasingly common. The significant association between clip placement and omission of axillary dissection, even among patients with pN+ disease, suggests a paradigm shift toward TAD as a definitive surgical management strategy in patients with pN+ disease after NAC.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in cN0 breast cancer patients: impact on axillary morbidity and survival-a propensity score cohort study

PURPOSE

In patients with clinically lymph node-negative (cN0) breast cancer, performing sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) has been preferentially embraced in comparison to before NACT. However, survival outcomes associated with both strategies remain understudied. We aimed to compare the axillary lymphadenectomy (ALND) rate, disease-free survival (DFS), and overall survival (OS), between two strategies.

METHODS

We included 310 patients in a retrospective observational study. SNLB was performed before NACT from December 2006 to April 2014 (107 cases) and after NACT from May 2014 to May 2020 (203 patients). An inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) method was applied to homogenize both groups. Hazard ratios (HR) and odd ratios (OR) are reported with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI).

RESULTS

The lymphadenectomy rate was 29.9% before NACT and 7.4% after NACT (p < 0.001), with an OR of 5.35 95%CI (2.7-10.4); p = .002. After 4 years of follow-up, SLNB after NACT was associated with lower risk for DFS, HR 0.42 95%CI (0.17-1.06); p = 0.066 and better OS, HR 0.21 CI 95% (0.07-0.67); p = 0.009 than SLNB before NACT. After multivariate analysis, independent adverse prognostic factors for OS included SLNB before NACT, HR 3.095 95%CI (2.323-4.123), clinical nonresponse to NACT, HR 1.702 95% CI (1.012-2.861), and small tumors (cT1) with high proliferation index, HR 1.889 95% (1.195-2.985).

CONCLUSION

Performing SLNB before NACT results in more ALND and has no benefit for patient survival. These findings support discontinuing the practice of SLNB before NACT in patients with cN0 breast cancer.

De-escalation of Axillary Surgery After Neoadjuvant Therapy

Surgical de-escalation of the axilla has evolved over the past 28 years since the emergence of sentinel lymph node surgery. Well-documented complications of the once standard of care axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), including lymphedema, led physician scientists towards a progressive push to study and incorporate less invasive techniques in the axilla. Many trials have justified oncologic safety of axillary de-escalation in patients who are spared neoadjuvant treatment. The applicability in the neoadjuvant setting, however, is less clear and axillary surgical approaches in this patient population have evolved at a slower pace. This review aims to analyze current data in axillary management for patients undergoing neoadjuvant treatment and to discuss current surgical approaches based on nodal pathologic response.

Targeted axillary dissection after neoadjuvant chemotherapy for highly selective patients with initial cN1 breast cancer: A single-center prospective trial

BACKGROUND

Sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy is gradually accepted as the standard of care in breast cancer patients with down-staged axillary disease after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). However, it is still difficult to precisely define pre-NAC clinical node-positive (cN1) and post-NAC clinical node-negative (ycN0). This prospective single-center trial was designed to evaluate the feasibility and accuracy of standard targeted axillary dissection (TAD) after NAC in highly selective pre-NAC cN1 patients (not considering ultrasound-based axillary ycN staging).

METHODS

This prospective trial included patients with initial pre-NAC cT1-3N1M0 invasive breast cancer but with a rigorous definition of cN1 from the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University. When NAC was effective (including complete and partial responses) and preoperative axillary palpation was negative, preoperative ultrasound-based axillary staging was not considered, and all patients underwent TAD followed by axillary lymph node (LN) dissection. The detection rate (DR) and false-negative rate (FNR) of TAD were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 82 patients were included, and 77 of them were eligible for data analysis. The DR for TAD was 94.8% (73/77). There were 26 patients with one abnormal LN at the time of diagnosis based on ultrasound, 45 patients with two, and 2 patients with three. One patient had one TAD LN, four patients had two TAD LNs, and 68 patients had three or more TAD LNs. Preoperative axillary palpation yielded negative results for all 73 patients who successfully underwent TAD. Preoperative ultrasound-based ycN0 and ycN+ conditions were detected for 52 and 21 cases, respectively. The FNR was 7.4% (2/27) for standard TAD (≥3 SLNs), which was lower than that of all successful TAD (≥1 SLN; 10.0%, 3/30).

CONCLUSIONS

In rigorously defined pre-NAC cN1 breast cancer patients, standard TAD is feasible for those with negative axillary palpation after NAC, and FNR is also less than 10%.

REGISTRATION

chictr.org.cn , ChiCTR2100049093.

Preoperative factors that predict pathologic nodal involvement in early-stage HER2+ breast cancer: selecting cT1cN0 patients for treatment with neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus upfront surgery

PURPOSE

The goal of this study was to identify the preoperative predictors of pathologic nodal metastases (pN+) in cT1cN0 HER2+ breast cancer undergoing upfront surgery.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed data from women with cT1-T2N0 HER2+ breast cancer treated with neoadjuvant therapy (NAC) or upfront surgery at our institution between 2012 and 2023. Factors associated with management strategy were evaluated, and in those undergoing upfront surgery, univariate analyses were performed to identify the clinicopathologic factors associated with nodal metastases.

RESULTS

Overall, 255 women with cT1-T2N0 HER2+ breast cancer met inclusion criteria, including 170 (68.6%) upfront surgery patients and 85 (31.4%) who underwent NAC. The median age at diagnosis was 59 years (range, 27-90 years). Younger age, larger clinical tumor size, high-grade disease, ER-PR-HER2+ subtype, and year of diagnosis after 2019 were significantly associated with receipt of NAC (p < 0.05). In those undergoing upfront surgery, 25.3% were pN+ , including 32.5% of cT1cN0 tumors. Factors associated with nodal involvement included age under 50, larger clinical tumor size, lymphovascular invasion (LVI), multifocality/multicentricity, and abnormal lymph nodes on axillary ultrasound (p < 0.05). In subset analysis of cT1cN0 HER2+ cases, LVI remained the strongest predictor of pN + disease (73.3% vs. 22.6%, p < 0.001). Patients with cT1cN0 HER2+ breast cancer under 50 years had a 47.1% likelihood of pN+ disease.

CONCLUSION

Patients with cT1cN0 breast cancer have a 32.5% likelihood of nodal metastases, with higher incidence with younger age, LVI, multifocality/multicentricity, and abnormal axillary ultrasound. The presence of these factors may identify the patients who would benefit from treatment with neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

Personalizing Locoregional Therapy in Patients With Breast Cancer in 2024: Tailoring Axillary Surgery, Escalating Lymphatic Surgery, and Implementing Evidence-Based Hypofractionated Radiotherapy

The management of axillary lymph nodes in breast cancer is continually evolving. Recent data now support omitting axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) in most patients with metastases in up to two sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) during upfront surgery and those with residual isolated tumor cells after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT). In the upfront surgery setting, ALND is still indicated, however, in patients with clinically node-positive breast cancer or more than two positive SLNs and, after NACT, in case of residual micrometastases and macrometastases. Omission of the sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) can be considered in many postmenopausal patients with small luminal breast cancer, particularly when axillary ultrasound is negative. Several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are currently aiming at eliminating the remaining indications for ALND and also establishing omission of SLNB in a broader patient population. The movement to deescalate axillary staging is in part because of the association between ALND and lymphedema, which is swelling of an extremity because of lymphatic damage and obstructed lymphatic drainage. To reduce the risk of developing this condition, patients undergoing ALND can undergo reverse mapping of the axilla and immediate reconstruction or bypass of the lymphatics from the involved extremity. Decongestion and compression are the foundation of conservative treatment for established lymphedema, while lymphovenous bypass and lymph node transfer are surgical procedures to address the physiologic dysfunction. Radiotherapy is an essential component of breast locoregional therapy: more than three decades of radiation research has optimized treatment according to patient's risk of local recurrence while substantially reducing the number of treatment visits. High-quality RCTs have shown the efficacy and safety of hypofractionation-more than 2Gy radiation dose per treatment (fraction)-significantly reducing the burden of radiotherapy treatment for many patients with breast cancer. In 2024, guidelines recommend no more than 15-16 fractions for whole-breast and nodal radiotherapy, with some recommending five fractions for whole-breast radiotherapy. In addition, simultaneous integrated boost (SIB) has been shown to be noninferior to sequential boost with regards to ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence with similar or reduced long-term side effects, also reducing overall treatment length. Further RCTs are underway investigating other indications for five fractions, including SIB and regional node irradiation, such that, in future, it may be possible for the majority of breast radiotherapy patients to be treated with a 1-week course. This manuscript serves to outline the latest updates on axillary surgical staging, lymphatic surgery, and evidence-based radiotherapy in the treatment of breast cancer.

Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy after Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients with Positive Nodes Using Low-Cost Dual Dye Technique: Identifying Factors Associated with Adequate False Negative Rate Threshold

Background

In this study, we evaluated the feasibility of the sentinel lymph node (SLN) identification rate (SLN-IR) of fluorescein-guided sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) in combination with methylene blue dye (MBD) and factors which can lead to a false negative rate (FNR) threshold of 10%.

Methods

This was a prospective cross-sectional non-randomized validation study in patients with post-neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) clinically node negative axilla who were node positive prior to start of NACT. Patients underwent validation of SLNB using fluorescein (and blue LED light) and MBD. Axillary dissection was performed irrespective of SLNB histology. SLIN-IR and FNR were assessed and compared with various molecular subtypes.

Results

The SLNs were identified in 102 out of 120 (85%) post-NACT patients. The median number of sentinel lymph nodes identified was 2 (range 1-3). The SLN-IR using MBD was 85%, FD was 82.5%, and combined MBD FD was 85%. Two or more SLNs were removed in 72 patients and 11 patients had tumor in the rest of the axilla, resulting in an FNR of 17.4%. An FNR was 25% in case only one SLN was found, and it was 11.42% if two or more than two SLNs were excised.

Conclusions

This cohort study found that use of low-cost dual dyes in patients with positive axillary disease, rendered cN0 with NACT, with 2 or more negative SLNs with SLNB alone, results in an FNR of 11.4%. Her 2 positive and TNBC with 2 or more negative SLNs are associated with an FNR of <10%. However, the number of such patients was small and further studies with larger sample size are warranted to confirm these findings.

The Feasibility and Reliability of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy After Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients With Negative Axillary Lymph Nodes-A Meta-analysis

Background

The application of sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) has expanded from early breast cancer to locally advanced breast cancer with neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). For patients with negative axillary lymph nodes, performing SLNB before or after NAC remains controversial.

Objectives

To evaluate the diagnostic feasibility and reliability of SLNB after NAC in breast cancer patients with negative axillary nodes at initial diagnosis.

Design

To calculate pooled identification rate (IR) and false negative rate (FNR) of SLNB after NAC on breast cancer patients with initially negative axillary nodes by enrolling relevant studies and perform subgroup analysis by the type of tracer and the number of biopsied sentinel lymph nodes in average.

Data sources and methods

The PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from January 1, 2002, to March 1, 2022, were searched for studies. The QUADAS-2 tool and MINORS item were employed to evaluate the quality of the included studies. I2 and Q tests were used to evaluate the heterogeneity among the studies. Random-effects model and fixed-effects model were employed to calculate the pooled IR, FNR, and 95% confidence interval (CI). Publication bias was evaluated, and sensitivity analysis was performed. Subgroup analysis was performed according to the type of tracer (single/double) and the number of biopsied sentinel lymph nodes in average (⩽2/>2).

Results

A total of 21 studies covering 1716 patients were enrolled in this study (IR = 93%, 95% CI = 90-96; FNR = 8%, 95% CI = 6-11).

Conclusion

The SLNB after NAC can serve as a feasible and reliable approach in breast cancer patients with negative axillary lymph node. In our study, no significant impact of tracer was found on the IR and FNR of SLNB, and the number of biopsy nodes >2 leads to the decreased FNR of SLNB.

Axillary Surgery for Breast Cancer in 2024

Axillary surgery for patients with breast cancer (BC) in 2024 is becoming increasingly specific, moving away from the previous 'one size fits all' radical approach. The goal is to spare morbidity whilst maintaining oncologic safety. In the upfront surgery setting, a first landmark randomized controlled trial (RCT) on the omission of any surgical axillary staging in patients with unremarkable clinical examination and axillary ultrasound showed non-inferiority to sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy (SLNB). The study population consisted of 87.8% postmenopausal patients with estrogen receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative BC. Patients with clinically node-negative breast cancer and up to two positive SLNs can safely be spared axillary dissection (ALND) even in the context of mastectomy or extranodal extension. In patients enrolled in the TAXIS trial, adjuvant systemic treatment was shown to be similar with or without ALND despite the loss of staging information. After neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT), targeted lymph node removal with or without SLNB showed a lower false-negative rate to determine nodal pathological complete response (pCR) compared to SLNB alone. However, oncologic outcomes do not appear to differ in patients with nodal pCR determined by either one of the two concepts, according to a recently published global, retrospective, real-world study. Real-world studies generally have a lower level of evidence than RCTs, but they are feasible quickly and with a large sample size. Another global real-world study provides evidence that even patients with residual isolated tumor cells can be safely spared from ALND. In general, few indications for ALND remain. Three randomized controlled trials are ongoing for patients with clinically node-positive BC in the upfront surgery setting and residual disease after NACT. Pending the results of these trials, ALND remains indicated in these patients.

Reducing axillary surgery in breast cancer

This article provides a brief account of the recent evolution of the highly controversial surgical management of the positive axilla in patients with breast cancer, an issue still open to disparate surgical procedures. This short review highlights the reports that supply the rationale for current trends in reducing the aggressiveness of this surgery and discusses the course of the trials still in progress pointing in the same direction, thus supporting the principle of not performing axillary lymph node dissection for staging purposes alone.

Axillary nodal staging in breast cancer: what have we learned?

Axillary management in patients with breast cancer is in a constant state of evolution. To provide appropriate treatment recommendations, we must understand the historical implications and the current indications for nodal staging as well as the clinical implications of nodal metastases. As we move away from maximal axillary surgical intervention that was previously the mainstay of breast cancer management, future research efforts will focus on targeted therapies based on tumor biology and identifying oncologically safe methods to de-escalate our management strategies.

Is Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy a Viable Alternative to Axillary Lymph Node Dissection in Breast Carcinoma Patients Who Have Received Neo-Adjuvant Chemotherapy?

Background Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) is based on the hypothesis that lymph from a primary solid neoplasm drains into one or more sentinel nodes, which are the first nodes at risk for harbouring occult metastatic disease. Sentinel lymph node biopsy has replaced axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) as the standard method for axillary staging in clinically node-negative patients. It avoids the complications associated with ALND and allows assessment of nodal status in patients with clinically node-negative breast cancer. Aims and objectives The aim of this study is to determine the false negative rate and identification rate of SLNB in breast cancer patients who received neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT). Materials and methods We conducted a hospital-based prospective study that included 19 patients who presented with early breast cancer and were node-positive. Post NACT, intraoperatively, methylene blue and radiocolloid dye were injected in the subareolar region. During the surgery, the blue and hot nodes identified were dissected, sent for frozen section analysis, and subsequently submitted for histopathological evaluation. This was followed by a standard-level I/II/III axillary clearance with histopathological examination. Results The false-negative rate of SLNB is 25%. Sentinel lymph node biopsy was more accurate with stage II than stage III tumours, and in patients who downstaged from stage II to any stage following NACT, it was more accurate than downstaging from stage III. The average number of sentinel nodes identified was 1.9, with the maximum being seven and the minimum being one. A total of 25 sentinel lymph nodes were identified in 13 patients, with an identification rate of 68.42%. Conclusions The main clinicopathological factors that influence the false negative rate of SLNB after NACT are axillary lymph node status, stage of the tumour at presentation, and tumour downstaging. For patients for whom sentinel nodes cannot be harvested, ALND should be done.

To Dissect or Not to Dissect: Can We Predict the Presence of Four or More Axillary Lymph Node Metastases in Postmenopausal Women with Clinically Node-Negative Breast Cancer?

BACKGROUND

Axillary lymph node (ALN) involvement is important for prognosis and guidance of multidisciplinary treatment of breast cancer patients. This study sought to identify preoperative clinicopathologic factors predictive of four or more pathologically positive ALNs in patients with cN0 disease and to develop a predictive nomogram to inform therapy recommendations.

METHODS

Using an institutional prospective database, the study identified postmenopausal women with cN0 invasive breast cancer undergoing upfront sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) with or without completion ALND (cALND) between 1993 and 2007. Logistic regression analyses identified factors predictive of four or more positive nodes in the cN0 population and patients with one, two, or more SLNs.

RESULTS

The study identified 2532 postmenopausal women, 615 (24.3%) of whom underwent cALND. In the univariate analysis, tumor size, lymphovascular (LVI), histology, estrogen receptor (ER)-positive status, and multifocality/multicentricity were predictive of four or more positive nodes (n = 63; p < 0.05), and all except ER status were significant in the multivariate analysis. Of the 2532 patients, 1263 (49.2%) had hormone receptor (HR)-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-negative disease, and 30 (2.4%) were found to have four or more positive nodes. Of the 130 patients with exactly one positive SLN who underwent cALND (n = 130, 5.4%), 7 had four or more positive nodes, with grade as the only predictive factor (p = 0.01). Of the 33 patients with two or more positive SLNs who underwent cALND, 9 (27.3%) had four or more positive nodes after cALND, but no factors were predictive in this subset.

CONCLUSION

Postmenopausal women with early-stage cN0 HR-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer with a single positive SLN had a very low risk (5%) of having four or more positive nodes on final pathology. With such a low risk of N2 disease, limited staging with SLNB may be sufficient to guide therapy decisions for this subset of patients.

Assessing trends in breast care surveillance metrics after implementing surgeon-specific tracking and performance reporting in a large, integrated cancer network

BACKGROUND

There are few quality metrics and benchmarks specific to surgical oncology. Development of a surgeon-level performance metrics system based on peer comparisons is hypothesized to positively influence surgical decision-making. This study established a tracking and reporting system comprised of evidence and consensus-based metrics to assess breast care delivered by individual surgeons.

METHODS

Surgeons' performance is assessed by a surveillance tracking system of metrics pertaining to referrals and surgical elements. This retrospective analysis of prospectively collected breast care data reports on recurring 6-month and cumulative data from nine care locations from 2015 to 2021.

RESULTS

Breast care was provided to 6659 patients by 41 surgeons. A total of 27 breast care metrics were evaluated over 7 years. Metrics with consistent, proficient results were retired after 18 months, including the rate of core biopsy, specimen orientation, and referrals to medical oncology, genetics, and fertility, among others. In clinically node-negative, hormone receptor-positive patients 70 years of age or older, the cumulative rate of sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy significantly decreased by 40% over 5.5 years (p < .001). The overall breast conservation rate for T0-T2 cancer increased 10% over 7 years. At the surgeon level, improvements were made in the median number of SLNs removed and in operative note documentation.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of a surgeon-specific, peer comparison-based metric and tracking system has yielded substantive changes in breast care management. This process and governance structure can serve as a model for quantification of breast care at other institutions and for other disease sites.

Top 100 cited classical articles in sentinel lymph nodes biopsy for breast cancer

Background

The sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) takes on a critical significance in breast cancer surgery since it is the gold standard for assessing axillary lymph node (ALN) metastasis and determining whether to perform axillary lymph node dissection (ALND). A bibliometric analysis is beneficial to visualize characteristics and hotspots in the field of sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs), and it is conducive to summarizing the important themes in the field to provide more insights into SLNs and facilitate the management of SLNs.

Materials and methods

Search terms relating to SLNs were aggregated and searched in the Web of Science core collection database to identify the top 100 most cited articles. Bibliometric tools were employed to identify and analyze publications for annual article volume, authors, countries, institutions, keywords, as well as hotspot topics.

Results

The period was from 1998 to 2018. The total number of citations ranged from 160 to 1925. LANCET ONCOLOGY and JAMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION were the top two journals in which the above articles were published. Giuliano, AE was the author with the highest number of articles in this field with 15. EUROPEAN INST ONCOL is the institution with the highest number of publications, with 35 articles. Hotspots include the following 4 topics, false-negative SLNs after neoadjuvant chemotherapy; prediction of metastatic SLNs; quality of life and postoperative complications; and lymphography of SLNs.

Conclusion

This study applies bibliometric tools to analyze the most influential literature, the top 100 cited articles in the field of SLNB, to provide researchers and physicians with research priorities and hotspots.

Low Rates of Local-Regional Recurrence Among Inflammatory Breast Cancer Patients After Contemporary Trimodal Therapy

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) represents a rare (2-3 %) but aggressive subset of breast cancer with a historically reported 5-year overall survival rate of 50 % and a 3-year local-regional recurrence (LRR) rate of 20 %. This study aimed to evaluate long-term LRR in a contemporary cohort of non-metastatic IBC patients undergoing trimodal therapy at a single institution and identify factors associated with local and distant failure.

METHODS

The study identified 262 patients with non-metastatic IBC who received trimodal therapy (neoadjuvant chemotherapy, modified radical mastectomy, adjuvant radiation) from an institutional prospective database (2007-2019). Long-term outcomes of local-regional and distant metastasis were reported. Survival outcomes were analyzed using the Cox proportional hazards regression model.

RESULTS

The median age at diagnosis was 52 years, and the median follow-up period was 5.1 years. In this cohort, 82 (31.3 %) patients achieved a pathologic complete response (pCR) in the breast and axilla. Local-regional recurrence was observed in 18 (6.9 %) patients (11 isolated to the chest wall, 4 isolated to regional nodes, and 3 involving chest wall and ipsilateral axillary nodes). Distant metastasis was observed in 92 (35.1 %) patients. During the follow-up period, 90 deaths occurred. In the multivariate analysis, pCR was associated with improved disease-free survival (hazard ratio [HR], 0.26; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 0.13-0.51; p = 0.001) and overall survival (HR, 0.31; 95 % CI, 0.15-0.65; p = 002).

CONCLUSIONS

During a median follow-up period longer than 5 years, the local-regional relapse rate for the IBC patients treated with contemporary trimodal therapy was 6.9%, similar to that for the non-IBC patients. After chemotherapy, surgical resection with modified radical mastectomy to negative margins and postmastectomy radiation therapy resulted in excellent long-term local-regional control.

Evidence-Based Strategies to Minimize the Likelihood of Axillary Lymph Node Dissection in Clinically Node-Positive Patients Following Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

De-escalation of axillary management after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in clinically node-positive patients is feasible. The current literature shows this may be accomplished by sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) with the use of dual tracer and removal of at least 2 sentinel lymph nodes, or by targeted axillary dissection (TAD). The accuracy of TAD has been consistently shown as better than that of SLNB. However, these techniques should only be offered to select patients without extensive axillary disease, understanding that long-term outcomes of minimal axillary surgery in this population are limited at this time.

Changes in Surgical Management of the Axilla Over 11 Years - Report on More Than 1500 Breast Cancer Patients Treated with Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy on the Prospective I-SPY2 Trial

BACKGROUND

Axillary surgery after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) is becoming less extensive. We evaluated the evolution of axillary surgery after NAC on the multi-institutional I-SPY2 prospective trial.

METHODS

We examined annual rates of sentinel lymph node (SLN) surgery with resection of clipped node, if present), axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), and SLN and ALND in patients enrolled in I-SPY2 from January 1, 2011 to December 31, 2021 by clinical N status at diagnosis and pathologic N status at surgery. Cochran-Armitage trend tests were calculated to evaluate patterns over time.

RESULTS

Of 1578 patients, 973 patients (61.7%) had SLN-only, 136 (8.6%) had SLN and ALND, and 469 (29.7%) had ALND-only. In the cN0 group, ALND-only decreased from 20% in 2011 to 6.25% in 2021 (p = 0.0078) and SLN-only increased from 70.0% to 87.5% (p = 0.0020). This was even more striking in patients with clinically node-positive (cN+) disease at diagnosis, where ALND-only decreased from 70.7% to 29.4% (p < 0.0001) and SLN-only significantly increased from 14.6% to 56.5% (p < 0.0001). This change was significant across subtypes (HR-/HER2-, HR+/HER2-, and HER2+). Among pathologically node-positive (pN+) patients after NAC (n = 525) ALND-only decreased from 69.0% to 39.2% (p < 0.0001) and SLN-only increased from 6.9% to 39.2% (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of ALND after NAC has significantly decreased over the past decade. This is most pronounced in cN+ disease at diagnosis with an increase in the use of SLN surgery after NAC. Additionally, in pN+ disease after NAC, there has been a decrease in use of completion ALND, a practice pattern change that precedes results from clinical trials.

Lymph node metastasis in cancer progression: molecular mechanisms, clinical significance and therapeutic interventions

Lymph nodes (LNs) are important hubs for metastatic cell arrest and growth, immune modulation, and secondary dissemination to distant sites through a series of mechanisms, and it has been proved that lymph node metastasis (LNM) is an essential prognostic indicator in many different types of cancer. Therefore, it is important for oncologists to understand the mechanisms of tumor cells to metastasize to LNs, as well as how LNM affects the prognosis and therapy of patients with cancer in order to provide patients with accurate disease assessment and effective treatment strategies. In recent years, with the updates in both basic and clinical studies on LNM and the application of advanced medical technologies, much progress has been made in the understanding of the mechanisms of LNM and the strategies for diagnosis and treatment of LNM. In this review, current knowledge of the anatomical and physiological characteristics of LNs, as well as the molecular mechanisms of LNM, are described. The clinical significance of LNM in different anatomical sites is summarized, including the roles of LNM playing in staging, prognostic prediction, and treatment selection for patients with various types of cancers. And the novel exploration and academic disputes of strategies for recognition, diagnosis, and therapeutic interventions of metastatic LNs are also discussed.

Feasibility of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy in Breast Cancer Patients with Axillary Conversion after Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy-A Single-Tertiary Centre Experience and Review of the Literature

(1) Introduction: Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) is widely used in breast cancer patients who undergo neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC), replacing axillary lymph node dissection. While commonly accepted for cN0 patients, its role in cN1/2 patients remains controversial. Our study aims to investigate the role of SLNB in BC patients who underwent prior NAC and compare our results to those of other studies presented in the literature. (2) Materials and methods: Our retrospective study included 102 breast cancer patients who received NAC before 99mTc-albumin Nanocolloid SLN mapping and SLNB was performed, completed or not with axillary dissection. A review based on the PRISMA statement was also carried out, encompassing 20 studies. (3) Results: The lymphoscintigraphy performed after the administration of NAC presented an identification rate (IR) of 93.13%. IR for SLNB was 94.11%, with a false-negative rate (FNR) of 7.4%. After a median follow-up of 31.3 months, we obtained a distant disease-free survival rate of 98%. The results obtained by other groups were similar to those of our study, presenting IR in the range 80.8-96.8%, with FNR varying from 0 to 22%. (4) Conclusions: on conclusion, SLNB can accurately determine the lymph node status, with an acceptable FNR and maintain its expected prognostic role with low recurrence rates, and our results are comparable to those obtained by other studies.

An Innovative Scoring System to Select the Optimal Surgery in Breast Cancer after Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

INTRODUCTION

The selection of surgery post-neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) is difficult and based on surgeons' expertise. The aim of this study was to create a post-NEoadjuvant Score System (pNESSy) to choose surgery, optimizing oncological and aesthetical outcomes.

METHODS

Patients (stage I-III) underwent surgery post-NACT (breast-conserving surgery (BCS), oncoplastic surgery (OPS), and conservative mastectomy (CMR) were included. Data selected were BRCA mutation, ptosis, breast volume, radiological response, MRI, and mammography pre- and post-NACT prediction of excised breast area. pNESSy was created using the association between these data and surgery. Area under the curve (AUC) was assessed. Patients were divided into groups according to correspondence (G1) or discrepancy (G2) between score and surgery; oncological and aesthetic outcomes were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 255 patients were included (118 BCS, 49 OPS, 88 CMR). pNESSy between 6.896-8.724 was predictive for BCS, 8.725-9.375 for OPS, and 9.376-14.245 for CMR; AUC was, respectively, 0.835, 0.766, and 0.825. G1 presented a lower incidence of involved margins (5-14.7%; p = 0.010), a better locoregional disease-free survival (98.8-88.9%; p < 0.001) and a better overall survival (96.1-86.5%; p = 0.017), and a better satisfaction with breasts (39.8-27.5%; p = 0.017) and physical wellbeing (93.5-73.6%; p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

A score system based on clinical and radiological features was created to select the optimal surgery post-NACT and improve oncological and aesthetic outcomes.

Nonsentinel Axillary Lymph Node Status in Clinically Node-Negative Early Breast Cancer After Primary Systemic Therapy and Positive Sentinel Lymph Node: A Predictive Model Proposal

BACKGROUND

In clinically node-negative (cN0) early stage breast cancer (EBC) undergoing primary systemic treatment (PST), post-treatment positive sentinel lymph node (SLN+) directs axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), with uncertain impacts on outcomes and increased morbidities.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted an observational study on imaging-confirmed cN0 EBC, who underwent PST and breast surgery that resulted in SLN+ and underwent ALND. The association among baseline/postsurgical clinic-pathological factors and positive nonsentinel additional axillary lymph nodes (non-SLN+) was analyzed with logistic regression. LASSO regression (LR) identified variables to include in a predictive score of non-SLN+ (ALND-predict). The accuracy and calibration were assessed, an optimal cut-point was then identified, and in silico validation with bootstrap was undertaken.

RESULTS

Non-SLN+ were detected in 22.2% cases after ALND. Only progesterone receptor (PR) levels and macrometastatic SLN+ were independently associated to non-SLN+. LR identified PR, Ki67, and type and number of SLN+ as the most efficient covariates. The ALND-predict score was built based on their LR coefficients, showing an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.83 and an optimal cut-off of 63, with a negative predictive value (NPV) of 0.925. Continuous and dichotomic scores had a good fit (p = 0.876 and p = 1.00, respectively) and were independently associated to non-SLN+ [adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 1.06, p = 0.002 and aOR: 23.77, p < 0.001, respectively]. After 5000 bootstrap-adjusted retesting, the estimated bias-corrected and accelerated 95%CI included the aOR.

CONCLUSIONS

In cN0 EBC with post-PST SLN+, non-SLN+ at ALND are infrequent (~22%) and independently associated to PR levels and macrometastatic SLN. ALND-predict multiparametric score accurately predicted absence of non-SLN involvement, identifying most patients who could be safely spared unnecessary ALND. Prospective validation is required.

Targeted axillary dissection using Radioguided Occult Lesion Localization technique in the clinically negative marked lymph node after neoadjuvant treatment in breast cancer patients

PURPOSE

To be aware of the feasibility of targeted axillary dissection (TAD) injecting 99mTechnetium-labeled macroaggregated albumin (99mTc-MAA) preoperatively into the clipped lymph node of patients with axillary complete clinical response (ycN0), after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) for breast cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A retrospective observational study was performed on N1 patients with a clipped positive node and a clinically negative axilla (ycN0) after NAC in one center. The pretreatment positive lymph node was injected with 99mTc-MAA the day before surgery and identified intraoperatively with a radioguided occult lesion localization (ROLL) technique. Patients were subjected to a TAD with the intent of identifying the clipped node and other/s sentinel nodes through a standard sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB).

RESULTS

54 patients and 55 axillary clipped nodes were included. The clip was intraoperatively encountered in every patient, accomplishing a 100% detection rate, although in one case no lymphatic tissue could be found in the intraoperative frozen section. An axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) was avoided in 62.9% of the cases (34/54).

CONCLUSION

The use of the ROLL technique is a highly valuable tool since it allows a 100% success rate in retrieving the marker (and a 98.1% rate in detecting the clipped lymph node) in ycN0 breast cancer patients.

Local-Regional Recurrence After Neoadjuvant Endocrine Therapy: Data from ACOSOG Z1031 (Alliance), a Randomized Phase 2 Neoadjuvant Comparison Between Letrozole, Anastrozole, and Exemestane for Postmenopausal Women with Estrogen Receptor-Positive Clinical Stage 2 or 3 Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

The ACOSOG Z1031 trial addressed the ability of three neoadjuvant aromatase inhibitors (NAIs) to reduce residual disease (cohort A) and to assess whether switching to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NCT) after 4 weeks of receiving NAI with Ki67 greater than 10% increases pathologic complete response (pCR) in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-enriched (Allred score 6-8) breast cancer (BC).

METHODS

The study enrolled 622 women with clinical stage 2 or 3 estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) BC. Cohort A comprised 377 patients, and cohort B had 245 patients. The analysis cohort consisted of 509 patients after exclusion of patients who did not meet the trial eligibility criteria, switched to NCT or surgery due to 4-week Ki67 greater than 10%, or withdrew before surgery. Distribution of time to local-regional recurrence (LRR) was estimated using the competing-risk approach, in which distant recurrence and second primaries were considered to be competing-risk events. Patients who died without LRR, distant recurrence, or a second primary were censored at the last evaluation.

RESULTS

Of the 509 patients, 342 (67.2%) had breast-conserving surgery (BCS). Of 221 patients thought to require mastectomy at presentation, 50% were able to have BCS. Five (1%) patients had no residual disease in the breast or nodes at surgery. Among 382 women alive at this writing, 90% have been followed longer than 5 years. The 5-year cumulative incidence rate for LRR is estimated to be 1.53% (95% confidence interval 0.7-3.0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Rarely does NAI result in pCR for patients with stage 2 or 3 ER+ BC. However, a significant proportion will have downstaged to allow for BCS. Local-regional recurrence after surgery is uncommon (1.5% at 5 years), supporting the use of BCS after NAI.

Omission of axillary lymph node dissection in patients with ypN+ breast cancer after neoadjuvant chemotherapy: A retrospective multicenter study (KROG 21-06)

BACKGROUND

We evaluated the impact of omitting axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) on oncological outcomes in breast cancer patients with residual nodal disease after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC).

METHODS

The medical records of patients who underwent NAC followed by surgical resection and had residual nodal disease were retrospectively reviewed. In total, 1273 patients from 12 institutions were included; all underwent postoperative radiotherapy. Axillary surgery consisted of ALND in 1103 patients (86.6%) and sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNBx) alone in 170 (13.4%). Univariate and multivariate analyses of disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) were performed before and after propensity score matching (PSM).

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 75.3 months (range, 2.5-182.7). Axillary recurrence rates were 4.8% in the ALND group (n = 53) and 4.7% in the SLNBx group (n = 8). Before PSM, univariate analysis indicated that the 5-year OS rate was inferior in the ALND group compared to the SLNBx group (86.6% vs. 93.3%, respectively; P = 0.002); multivariate analysis did not show a difference between groups (P = 0.325). After PSM, 258 and 136 patients were included in the ALND and SLNBx groups, respectively. There were no significant differences between the ALND and SLNBx groups in DFS (5-year rate, 75.8% vs. 76.9%, respectively; P = 0.406) or OS (5-year rate, 88.7% vs. 93.1%, respectively; P = 0.083).

CONCLUSIONS

SLNBx alone did not compromise oncological outcomes in patients with residual nodal disease after NAC. The omission of ALND might be a possible option for axillary management in patients treated with NAC and postoperative radiotherapy.

Surgical Planning after Neoadjuvant Treatment in Breast Cancer: A Multimodality Imaging-Based Approach Focused on MRI

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) today represents a cornerstone in the treatment of locally advanced breast cancer and highly chemo-sensitive tumors at early stages, increasing the possibilities of performing more conservative treatments and improving long term outcomes. Imaging has a fundamental role in the staging and prediction of the response to NACT, thus aiding surgical planning and avoiding overtreatment. In this review, we first examine and compare the role of conventional and advanced imaging techniques in preoperative T Staging after NACT and in the evaluation of lymph node involvement. In the second part, we analyze the different surgical approaches, discussing the role of axillary surgery, as well as the possibility of non-operative management after-NACT, which has been the subject of recent trials. Finally, we focus on emerging techniques that will change the diagnostic assessment of breast cancer in the near future.

Surgical Management of the Axilla for Breast Cancer

This review discusses the contemporary surgical management of the axilla in patients with breast cancer. Surgical paradigms are highlighted by clinical nodal status at presentation and treatment approach, including upfront surgery and neoadjuvant systemic therapy settings. This review focuses on the increasing opportunities for de-escalating the extent of axillary surgery in the era of sentinel lymph node biopsy, while also reviewing the remaining indications for axillary clearance with axillary lymph node dissection.

Estimating the Benefit of Preoperative Systemic Therapy to Reduce the Extent of Breast Cancer Surgery: Current Standard and Future Directions

Once reserved for locally advanced tumors which were deemed inoperable at presentation, preoperative systemic therapy (PST) is nowadays increasingly used to treat early breast cancer. PST allows for in vivo assessment of tumor response, for tailoring of adjuvant systemic therapy and for de-escalation of breast and the axillary surgery. Increased rates of pathological complete response together with more accurate response assessment and surgical planning have led to a significant reduction in surgical morbidity. While surgical assessment remains the standard of care, ongoing studies are evaluating whether surgery can be omitted in patients who achieve a complete pathological response. In this chapter, I will review the impact of PST on surgical de-escalation and the data supporting the safety of this approach.

"This house believes that: Sentinel node biopsy alone is better than TAD after NACT for cN+ patients"

The increased use of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) has changed the approach to breast surgery. NACT allows de-escalation of surgery by both increasing breast conservation rates (up to 40%), the initial goal of this chemotherapy, and in particular it permits reduces axillary surgery. Furthermore, in relation to the molecular characteristics of the tumor we can have a pathological complete response (pCR) ranging from 20 to 80%. In clinically node positive (cN+) patients who converted to clinically node-negative (cN0) various prospective studies have demonstrated that the false negative rate (FNR) of the sentinel node biopsy (SNB) were higher than the acceptable 10% and strategies to reduce the FNR in cN + patients are being investigated. But all the effort to reduce the FNR does not have clinical prognostic significance. This has already been demonstrated in the literature in different randomized trials with long term follow up. The 10-year follow-up of our study confirmed our preliminary data that the use of standard SNB without the use of clip is acceptable in cN1/2 patients who become cN0 after NAT and will not translate into a worse outcome. In fact, the axillary recurrences were less than 2%. Similar positive data with different follow up were also confirmed by other studies that used SNB alone without TAD. All these studies, with encouraging results on the follow up, confirm that SN surgery alone for selected patients who have an excellent response to NACT is rationale and not oncologically inferior to AD during a short- and long-term follow-up.

Surgical Management of the Axilla in Invasive Lobular Carcinoma in the Z1071 Era: A Propensity-Score Matched Analysis of the National Cancer Database

In patients with invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) and clinically positive nodes (cN1) who demonstrate an axillary clinical response to neoadjuvant-chemotherapy (NAC), the outcomes of sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) compared to axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) are not well studied. We sought to evaluate axillary surgery practice patterns and the resultant impact on overall survival (OS) in cN1 ILC. The National Cancer Database (NCDB) was queried (2012-2017) for women with cN1 ILC who were treated with NAC followed by surgery. Propensity-score matching was performed between SLNB and ALND cohorts. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of OS. Of 1390 patients, 1192 were luminal A ILCs (85.8%). 143 patients (10.3%) had a complete axillary clinical response, while 1247 (89.7%) had a partial clinical response in the axilla. Definitive axillary surgery was SLNB in 211 patients (15.2%). Utilization of SLNB for definitive axillary management increased from 8% to 16% during the study period. Among 201 propensity-score matched patients stratified by SLNB vs. ALND, mean OS did not significantly differ (81.6 ± 1.8 vs. 81.4 ± 2.0 months; p = 0.56). Cox regression analysis of the entire cohort demonstrated that increasing age, grade, HER2+ and triple-negative tumors, and partial clinical response were unfavorable OS predictors (p < 0.02 each). The definitive axillary operation and administration of adjuvant axillary radiation did not influence OS. In cN1 ILC patients with a clinical response to NAC in the axilla, SLNB vs. ALND did not affect OS. Further axillary therapy may be warranted with ypN+ disease.

Factors Associated with Axillary Lymph Node Status in Clinically Node-Negative Breast Cancer Patients Undergoing Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

Adequate axillary lymph node (ALN) staging is critical for patients with invasive breast cancer. However, neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) was associated with a lower risk of ALN metastasis compared with those who underwent primary surgery among clinically node-negative (cN0) patients. This study aimed to investigate the factors associated with ALN status among patients with cN0 breast cancer undergoing NAC. A total of 222 consecutive patients with cN0 breast cancer undergoing NAC between January 2012 and December 2021 were reviewed. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to compare factors associated with positive ALN status. Seventeen patients (7.7%) had ALNs metastases. Here, 90 patients (40.5%) achieved pathologic complete response in the breast (breast-pCR), and all had negative ALN status. Lymphovascular invasion (odds ratio: 29.366, p < 0.0001) was an independent risk predictor of ALN metastasis in all study populations. Among patients without breast-pCR, mastectomies were performed more frequently in patients with ALN metastasis (52.9%) than in those without metastasis (20.9%) (p = 0.013). Our findings support the omission of axillary surgery in patients who achieve breast-pCR. Prospective studies are needed to confirm the feasibility of a future two-stage surgical plan for breast-conserving surgery in patients who are likely to achieve breast-pCR during clinical evaluation.

Breast cancer: an up-to-date review and future perspectives

Breast cancer is the most common cancer worldwide. The occurrence of breast cancer is associated with many risk factors, including genetic and hereditary predisposition. Breast cancers are highly heterogeneous. Treatment strategies for breast cancer vary by molecular features, including activation of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), hormonal receptors (estrogen receptor [ER] and progesterone receptor [PR]), gene mutations (e.g., mutations of breast cancer 1/2 [BRCA1/2] and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha [PIK3CA]) and markers of the immune microenvironment (e.g., tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte [TIL] and programmed death-ligand 1 [PD-L1]). Early-stage breast cancer is considered curable, for which local-regional therapies (surgery and radiotherapy) are the cornerstone, with systemic therapy given before or after surgery when necessary. Preoperative or neoadjuvant therapy, including targeted drugs or immune checkpoint inhibitors, has become the standard of care for most early-stage HER2-positive and triple-negative breast cancer, followed by risk-adapted post-surgical strategies. For ER-positive early breast cancer, endocrine therapy for 5-10 years is essential. Advanced breast cancer with distant metastases is currently considered incurable. Systemic therapies in this setting include endocrine therapy with targeted agents, such as CDK4/6 inhibitors and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors for hormone receptor-positive disease, anti-HER2 targeted therapy for HER2-positive disease, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors for BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and immunotherapy currently for part of triple-negative disease. Innovation technologies of precision medicine may guide individualized treatment escalation or de-escalation in the future. In this review, we summarized the latest scientific information and discussed the future perspectives on breast cancer.

Low-dose apatinib combined with neoadjuvant chemotherapy in the treatment of early-stage triple-negative breast cancer (LANCET): a single-center, single-arm, phase II trial

Background:

Antiangiogenic therapy combined with chemotherapy could improve pathological complete response (pCR) for breast cancer. Apatinib is an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor that selectively inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2. We assessed the efficacy and safety of apatinib combined with standard neoadjuvant chemotherapy in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

Materials and methods:

This single-arm, phase II study enrolled patients aged 18–70 years with previously untreated stage IIA-IIIB TNBC. Patients received oral apatinib at a dose of 250 mg once daily and intravenously docetaxel every 3 weeks for four cycles, followed by epirubicin plus cyclophosphamide every 3 weeks for four cycles. The primary endpoint was the pCR rate in the breast and lymph nodes. Secondary endpoints included objective response rate, event-free survival (EFS), overall survival (OS), and safety.

Results:

In all, 31 patients were enrolled, and the median follow-up time was 22.9 months (range: 10.1–41.6 months). The pCRs in both breast and lymph nodes were achieved in 17 [54.8%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 36.0–72.7] of 31 patients. Objective responses were achieved in 29 patients (93.5%; 95% CI: 78.6–99.2), and disease control was achieved in 31 patients (100%; 95% CI: 88.8–100.0). The 2-year EFS and 2-year OS were 90.9% and 94.4%, respectively. The five most common treatment-related adverse events were fatigue (51%), hypertension (41%), anorexia (39%), hand–foot syndrome (35%), and diarrhea (32%). Few grade 3 or more adverse events were observed.

Conclusion:

The combination of apatinib with docetaxel followed by epirubicin plus cyclophosphamide showed excellent efficacy and manageable toxicities; and further randomized controlled phase III trials are warranted.

Trial registration:

This trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03243838) on 5 August 2017.

Intelligent Vacuum-Assisted Biopsy to Identify Breast Cancer Patients With Pathologic Complete Response (ypT0 and ypN0) After Neoadjuvant Systemic Treatment for Omission of Breast and Axillary Surgery

PURPOSE

Neoadjuvant systemic treatment (NST) elicits a pathologic complete response in 40%-70% of women with breast cancer. These patients may not need surgery as all local tumor has already been eradicated by NST. However, nonsurgical approaches, including imaging or vacuum-assisted biopsy (VAB), were not able to accurately identify patients without residual cancer in the breast or axilla. We evaluated the feasibility of a machine learning algorithm (intelligent VAB) to identify exceptional responders to NST.

METHODS

We trained, tested, and validated a machine learning algorithm using patient, imaging, tumor, and VAB variables to detect residual cancer after NST (ypT+ or in situ or ypN+) before surgery. We used data from 318 women with cT1-3, cN0 or +, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive, triple-negative, or high-proliferative Luminal B-like breast cancer who underwent VAB before surgery (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02948764, RESPONDER trial). We used 10-fold cross-validation to train and test the algorithm, which was then externally validated using data of an independent trial (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02575612). We compared findings with the histopathologic evaluation of the surgical specimen. We considered false-negative rate (FNR) and specificity to be the main outcomes.

RESULTS

In the development set (n = 318) and external validation set (n = 45), the intelligent VAB showed an FNR of 0.0%-5.2%, a specificity of 37.5%-40.0%, and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.91-0.92 to detect residual cancer (ypT+ or in situ or ypN+) after NST. Spiegelhalter's Z confirmed a well-calibrated model (z score -0.746, P = .228). FNR of the intelligent VAB was lower compared with imaging after NST, VAB alone, or combinations of both.

CONCLUSION

An intelligent VAB algorithm can reliably exclude residual cancer after NST. The omission of breast and axillary surgery for these exceptional responders may be evaluated in future trials.

Patients with initial nodal involvement due to breast cancer who have received neoadjuvant chemotherapy: Combined sentinel node-radioguided surgery of the pathological node

OBJECTIVE

To study the feasibility and usefulness of ultrasound-guided pre-chemotherapy marking of pathologic lymph node followed by sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB)-pathologic node radioguided biopsy (ROLL) combined technique, in axillary involvement breast cancer patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prospective diagnostic study of 30 patients with breast cancer and cN1 axillary staging with NACT indication. Before NACT, the biopsied node was marked with a clip (MBN). After NACT an ultrasound was performed and in case of good response a SLNB (^99mTc-nanocolloids) plus targeted axillary dissection MBN ROLL biopsy (^99mTc-albumin macroaggregates) was performed. Axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) was performed if SLNB and/or MBN were positive for tumor cells. The localization-removal rate of the sentinel lymph node (SLN) and MBN were evaluated. False-negative rate (FNR) and positive predictive value (PPV) of SLNB alone were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Thirty patients were included in the study. SLN could be detected in all patients while MBN was successfully removed in 27 (90%). The SLN coincided with MBN in 15 patients (50%). In 12 patients SLNB was negative while MBN positive, leading to a FNR of 44.4% for SLNB alone. We found a PPV of 37% for the SLNB. In 5 patients (18.5%) both SLNB and MBN were negative, avoiding ALND.

CONCLUSIONS

SLNB-MBN radioguided biopsy ROLL combined technique is a useful and accessible procedure for accurate axillary restaging after NACT, avoiding the high rate of FNR of SLNB alone in this group of patients and avoiding a great number of ALND.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Imaging of the Axilla

This publication reviews the current evidence supporting the imaging approach of the axilla in various scenarios with broad differential diagnosis ranging from inflammatory to malignant etiologies. Controversies on the management of axillary adenopathy results in disagreement on the appropriate axillary imaging tests. Ultrasound is often the appropriate initial imaging test in several clinical scenarios. Clinical information (such as age, physical examinations, risk factors) and concurrent complete breast evaluation with mammogram, tomosynthesis, or MRI impact the type of initial imaging test for the axilla. Several impactful clinical trials demonstrated that selected patient's population can received sentinel lymph node biopsy instead of axillary lymph node dissection with similar overall survival, and axillary lymph node dissection is a safe alternative as the nodal staging procedure for clinically node negative patients or even for some node positive patients with limited nodal tumor burden. This approach is not universally accepted, which adversely affect the type of imaging tests considered appropriate for axilla. This document is focused on the initial imaging of the axilla in various scenarios, with the understanding that concurrent or subsequent additional tests may also be performed for the breast. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion may supplement the available evidence to recommend imaging or treatment.

Diagnostic accuracy of de-escalated surgical procedure in axilla for node-positive breast cancer patients treated with neoadjuvant systemic therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

More initial clinical node-positive breast cancer patients achieve axillary pathological complete response (ax-pCR) after neoadjuvant systemic therapy (NST). Restaging axillary status and performing de-escalated surgical procedures to replace routine axillary lymph nodes dissection (ALND) is urgently needed. Targeted axillary lymph node biopsy (TLNB) is a novel de-escalated surgical strategy marking metastatic axillary nodes before NST and targeted dissection and biopsy intraoperatively to tailor individual axillary management.

METHODS

This study provided a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the feasibility and diagnosis accuracy of TLNB. Prospective and retrospective clinical trials on TLNB were searched from Pubmed, Embase, and Cochrane. Identification rate (IFR), false-negative rate (FNR), negative predictive value (NPV), and rate of ax-pCR were the outcomes of this meta-analysis.

RESULTS

One thousand nine hundred and twenty patients attempted TLNB, with an overall IFR of 93.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 90.1%-96.2%). IFR of three nodal marking methods, namely iodine seeds, clips, and carbon dye, was 95.6% (95% CI 91.2%-98.7%), 91.7% (95% CI 87.3%-95.4%), and 97.1% (95% CI 89.1%-100.0%), respectively. Of them, 847 patients received ALND, with an overall FNR of 5.5% (95% CI 3.3%-8.0%), and NPV ranged from 90.1% to 96.1%. Regression analysis showed that the overlap of targeted and sentinel biopsied nodes might associate with IFRs and FNRs.

CONCLUSION

TLNB is a novel, less invasive surgical approach to distinguish initial node-positive breast cancer that achieves negative axillary conversion after NST. It yields an excellent IFR with a low FNR and a high NPV. A combination of preoperative imaging, intraoperative TLNB with SLNB, and postoperative nodal radiotherapy might affect the future treatment paradigm of primary breast cancer with nodal metastases.

Targeted Axillary Dissection after Chemotherapy: Feasibility Study with Clip and Carbon Dye Tattoo - Neotarget Trial

Background

Axillary staging in patients with complete response after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) is still controversial. Our objective was to test tattoo alone and subsequentially tattoo plus clip as markers in the targeted axillary dissection of ycN0 patients.

Methods

Prospective cohort of cT1-T3, cN1 (proven histologically), M0 patients scheduled to receive NAC. Exclusion criteria were lobular histology, prior axillary surgery, and clinical N2/3. In cohort 1 this positive node (Neotarget node) was tattooed at diagnosis. If ycN0, a targeted axillary dissection was performed. After an interim analysis with negative results we changed the protocol in order to do a double marking procedure (Cohort 2): the positive node was clipped at diagnosis and after NAC a tattoo was done before surgery.

Results

Thirteen patients in Cohort 1 and 18 patients in Cohort 2. Failure to identify the Neotarget node with multiple nodes retrieved in 9/13 (69%) of Cohort 1 patients. Also in 5/13 (38%) of Cohort 1 patients and 3/18 (17%) of Cohort 2 there was a failure to clearly identify tattooed nodes. In Cohort 2, clip identification by surgical specimen radiography allowed the identification of the tagged node in 17/18 (94,4%) of cases. The concordance between the clipped node and sentinel nodes was 16/18 (89%).

Conclusions

The introduction of double marking by clipping the metastatic node and verifying their removal by surgical specimen radiography, using carbon ink as a tracer, allowed the identification of the metastatic node in 94% of cases, with a simple, reproducible, and easy-to-implement targeted axillary dissection procedure.

Nanoparticle-assisted axillary staging: an alternative approach after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in patients with pretreatment node-positive breast cancers

PURPOSE

In order to achieve an optimized method of axillary staging after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) in breast cancer patients with pretreatment positive axillary lymph nodes, we evaluated the feasibility and accuracy of nanoparticle-assisted axillary staging (NAAS) which combines carbon nanoparticles with standard sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) with radioisotope and blue dye.

METHODS

Invasive breast cancer patients with pre-NAC positive axillary lymph nodes who converted to ycN0 and received surgeries from November 2020 to March 2021 were included. All patients underwent ipsilateral NAAS followed by axillary lymph node dissection. Detection rate (DR), false-negative rate (FNR), negative predictive value (NPV) and accuracy of axillary staging were calculated.

RESULTS

Eighty of 136 (58.8%) breast cancer patients converted to ycN0 after NAC and received NAAS. The DR, NPV and accuracy was 95.0%, 93.3% and 97.4% for NAAS, respectively. And the FNR was 4.2% (2/48) for NAAS, which was lower than that of standard dual-tracer SLNB (SD-SLNB) (9.5%, 4/42). Pretreatment clinical T4 classification was a risk factor for detection failure in NAAS (p = 0.016). When patients with pretreatment inflammatory breast cancers were excluded from analysis, FNR dropped to 2.2% (1/45) for NAAS.

CONCLUSION

NAAS revealed great performance in invasive breast cancer patients with pre-NAC positive axillary lymph nodes who converted to ycN0. The application of NAAS reached a better balance between more accurate axillary evaluation and less intervention. Trial registration Chictr.org.cn (ChiCTR2000039814). Registered Nov 11, 2020.

Outcomes of Sentinel Node Biopsy for Women with Breast Cancer After Neoadjuvant Therapy: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Real-World Data

BACKGROUND

Evidence on the accuracy of sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) after neoadjuvant therapy (NAT) for patients with breast cancer is inconclusive. This study reviewed the real-world data to determine the acceptability of SLNB after NAT.

METHODS

The study searched for articles in the PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases. The primary outcomes were the identification rate for sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) and the false-negative rate (FNR) for SLNB. The study also evaluated the FNR in subgroups defined by tumor stage, nodal stage, hormone receptor status, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 status, tumor response, mapping technique, and number of SLNs removed.

RESULTS

The study retrieved 61 prospective and 18 retrospective studies with 10,680 initially cN± patients. The pooled estimate of the identification rate was 0.906 (95 % confidence interval [CI], 0.891-0.922), and the pooled FNR was 0.118 (95 % CI, 0.103-0.133). In subgroup analysis, the FNR was significantly higher for the patients with estrogen receptor (ER)-negative status and fewer than three SLNs removed. The FNR did not differ significantly between the patients with and those without complete tumor response. Among the patients with initial clinical negative axillary lymph nodes, the incidence of node metastasis was 26.8 % (275/1041) after NAT.

CONCLUSION

Real-world evidence indicates that the FNR of SLNB after NAT in breast cancer is 11.8 %, exceeding only slightly the commonly adopted threshold of 10 %. The FNR is significantly higher for patients with ER-negative status and removal of fewer than three SLNs. Using a dual tracer and removing at least three SLNs may increase the accuracy of SLNB after NAT.

De-escalating axillary surgery in early-stage breast cancer

The role of axillary surgery has evolved over the last three decades from routine axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) to sentinel lymph node biopsy to omission of axillary surgery altogether in select patients. This evolution has been achieved through the design and conduct of multiple clinical trials demonstrating that ALND does not impact survival and is not necessary for local control in patients with early-stage breast cancer and limited nodal involvement. Importantly, this practice-changing shift mirrored the trend towards earlier stage at diagnosis and the recognition of the interplay between local and systemic therapies in maintaining local control. There are numerous clinical scenarios today in which axillary staging can be safely avoided, including (1) DCIS treated with lumpectomy, (2) at the time of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy, and (3) in elderly patients with early-stage, HR+/HER2-clinically node-negative (cN0) disease. Ongoing clinical trials seek to expand the cohorts in which surgical nodal staging can be omitted. These populations include a broader range of early-stage, cN0 patients undergoing upfront surgery, as seen in the SOUND, INSEMA, BOOG 2013-08, SOAPET and NAUTILUS trials. Omission of axillary surgery in cN0 patients with HER2+ or triple-negative disease treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy is also being tested in the ASICS and EUBREAST-01 trials. Continued advances in imaging and the growing role of genomic assays in selecting patients for systemic therapy are likely to further minimize the need for axillary surgery; thereby further reducing the morbidity of local therapy for women with breast cancer.

Axillary Lymph Node Dissection Rates and Prognosis From Phase III Neoadjuvant Systemic Trial Comparing Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy With Neoadjuvant Endocrine Therapy in Pre-Menopausal Patients With Estrogen Receptor-Positive and HER2-Negative, Lymph Node-Positive Breast Cancer

In this study, we aimed to evaluate axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) rates and prognosis in neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NCT) compare with neoadjuvant endocrine therapy (NET) in estrogen receptor-positive (ER+)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2-), lymph node (LN)-positive, premenopausal breast cancer patients (NCT01622361). The multicenter, phase 3, randomized clinical trial enrolled 187 women from July 5, 2012, to May 30, 2017. The patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to either 24 weeks of NCT including adriamycin plus cyclophosphamide followed by intravenous docetaxel, or NET involving goserelin acetate and daily tamoxifen. ALND was performed based on the surgeon’s decision. The primary endpoint was ALND rate and surgical outcome after preoperative treatment. The secondary endpoint was long-term survival. Among the 187 randomized patients, pre- and post- neoadjuvant systemic therapy (NST) assessments were available for 170 patients. After NST, 49.4% of NCT patients and 55.4% of NET patients underwent mastectomy after treatment completion. The rate of ALND was significantly lower in the NCT group than in the NET group (55.2% vs. 69.9%, P=.046). Following surgery, the NET group showed a significantly higher mean number of removed LNs (14.96 vs. 11.74, P=.003) and positive LNs (4.84 vs. 2.92, P=.000) than the NCT group. The axillary pathologic complete response (pCR) rate was significantly higher in the NCT group (13.8% vs. 4.8%, P=.045) than in the NET group. During a median follow-up of 67.3 months, 19 patients in the NCT group and 12 patients in the NET group reported recurrence. The 5-year ARFS (97.5%vs. 100%, P=.077), DFS (77.2% vs. 84.8%, P=.166), and OS (97.5% vs. 94.7%, P=.304) rates did not differ significantly between the groups. In conclusion, although survival did not differ significantly, more NCT patients might able to avoid ALND, with fewer LNs removed with lower LN positivity.