Activation of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Ameliorates Acute Rejection of Rat Liver Transplantation by Regulating Treg Proliferation and PD-1 Expression

Role of the immune system in liver transplantation and its implications for therapeutic interventions

Liver transplantation (LT) stands as the gold standard for treating end-stage liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, yet postoperative complications continue to impact survival rates. The liver's unique immune system, governed by a microenvironment of diverse immune cells, is disrupted during processes like ischemia-reperfusion injury posttransplantation, leading to immune imbalance, inflammation, and subsequent complications. In the posttransplantation period, immune cells within the liver collaboratively foster a tolerant environment, crucial for immune tolerance and liver regeneration. While clinical trials exploring cell therapy for LT complications exist, a comprehensive summary is lacking. This review provides an insight into the intricacies of the liver's immune microenvironment, with a specific focus on macrophages and T cells as primary immune players. Delving into the immunological dynamics at different stages of LT, we explore the disruptions after LT and subsequent immune responses. Focusing on immune cell targeting for treating liver transplant complications, we provide a comprehensive summary of ongoing clinical trials in this domain, especially cell therapies. Furthermore, we offer innovative treatment strategies that leverage the opportunities and prospects identified in the therapeutic landscape. This review seeks to advance our understanding of LT immunology and steer the development of precise therapies for postoperative complications.

Interactions of IDO and the Kynurenine Pathway with Cell Transduction Systems and Metabolism at the Inflammation-Cancer Interface

The mechanisms underlying a relationship between inflammation and cancer are unclear, but much emphasis has been placed on the role of tryptophan metabolism to kynurenine and downstream metabolites, as these make a substantial contribution to the regulation of immune tolerance and susceptibility to cancer. The proposed link is supported by the induction of tryptophan metabolism by indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) or tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), in response to injury, infection or stress. This review will summarize the kynurenine pathway and will then focus on the bi-directional interactions with other transduction pathways and cancer-related factors. The kynurenine pathway can interact with and modify activity in many other transduction systems, potentially generating an extended web of effects other than the direct effects of kynurenine and its metabolites. Conversely, the pharmacological targeting of those other systems could greatly enhance the efficacy of changes in the kynurenine pathway. Indeed, manipulating those interacting pathways could affect inflammatory status and tumor development indirectly via the kynurenine pathway, while pharmacological modulation of the kynurenine pathway could indirectly influence anti-cancer protection. While current efforts are progressing to account for the failure of selective IDO1 inhibitors to inhibit tumor growth and to devise means of circumventing the issue, it is clear that there are wider factors involving the relationship between kynurenines and cancer that merit detailed consideration as alternative drug targets.

Redefining Autoimmune Disorders' Pathoetiology: Implications for Mood and Psychotic Disorders' Association with Neurodegenerative and Classical Autoimmune Disorders

Although previously restricted to a limited number of medical conditions, there is a growing appreciation that 'autoimmune' (or immune-mediated) processes are important aspects of a wide array of diverse medical conditions, including cancers, neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders. All of these classes of medical conditions are associated with alterations in mitochondrial function across an array of diverse cell types. Accumulating data indicate the presence of the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway in possibly all body cells, with important consequences for pathways crucial in driving CD8⁺ T cell and B-cell 'autoimmune'-linked processes. Melatonin suppression coupled with the upregulation of oxidative stress suppress PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1)/parkin-driven mitophagy, raising the levels of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-1, which underpins the chemoattraction of CD8⁺ T cells and the activation of antibody-producing B-cells. Many factors and processes closely associated with autoimmunity, including gut microbiome/permeability, circadian rhythms, aging, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB) all interact with the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway. A number of future research directions and novel treatment implications are indicated for this wide collection of poorly conceptualized and treated medical presentations. It is proposed that the etiology of many 'autoimmune'/'immune-mediated' disorders should be conceptualized as significantly determined by mitochondrial dysregulation, with alterations in the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway being an important aspect of these pathoetiologies.

Tumor Microenvironment and Metabolism: Role of the Mitochondrial Melatonergic Pathway in Determining Intercellular Interactions in a New Dynamic Homeostasis

There is a growing interest in the role of alterations in mitochondrial metabolism in the pathoetiology and pathophysiology of cancers, including within the array of diverse cells that can form a given tumor microenvironment. The 'exhaustion' in natural killer cells and CD8+ t cells as well as the tolerogenic nature of dendritic cells in the tumor microenvironment seems determined by variations in mitochondrial function. Recent work has highlighted the important role played by the melatonergic pathway in optimizing mitochondrial function, limiting ROS production, endogenous antioxidants upregulation and consequent impacts of mitochondrial ROS on ROS-dependent microRNAs, thereby impacting on patterned gene expression. Within the tumor microenvironment, the tumor, in a quest for survival, seeks to 'dominate' the dynamic intercellular interactions by limiting the capacity of cells to optimally function, via the regulation of their mitochondrial melatonergic pathway. One aspect of this is the tumor's upregulation of kynurenine and the activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which acts to metabolize melatonin and increase the N-acetylserotonin/melatonin ratio, with effluxed N-acetylserotonin acting as a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mimic via its activation of the BDNF receptor, TrkB, thereby increasing the survival and proliferation of tumors and cancer stem-like cells. This article highlights how many of the known regulators of cells in the tumor microenvironment can be downstream of the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway regulation. Future research and treatment implications are indicated.

Transcriptomic analysis of graft liver provides insight into the immune response of rat liver transplantation

Background

As an “immune-privileged organ”, the liver has higher rates of both spontaneous tolerance and operational tolerance after being transplanted compared with other solid organs. Also, a large number of patients still need to take long-term immunosuppression regimens. Liver transplantation (LT) rejection involves varieties of pathophysiological processes and cell types, and a deeper understanding of LT immune response is urgently needed.

Methods

Homogenic and allogeneic rat LT models were established, and recipient tissue was collected on postoperative day 7. The degree of LT rejection was evaluated by liver pathological changes and liver function. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected by transcriptome sequencing and confirmed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The functional properties of DEGs were characterized by the Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Reactome pathway analyses. The cells infiltrating the graft and recipient spleen and peripheral blood were evaluated by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry.

Result

A total of 1,465 DEGs were screened, including 1,177 up-regulated genes and 288 down-regulated genes. GO enrichment and KEGG pathway analysis indicated that DEGs were involved in several immunobiological processes, including T cell activation, Th1, Th2 and Th17 cell differentiation, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and other immune processes. Reactome results showed that PD-1 signaling was enriched. Further research confirmed that mRNA expression of multiple immune cell markers increased and markers of T cell exhaustion significantly changed. Flow cytometry showed that the proportion of Treg decreased, and that of PD-1+CD4+ T cells and PD-1+CD8+ T cells increased in the allogeneic group.

Conclusion

Using an omic approach, we revealed that the development of LT rejection involved multiple immune cells, activation of various immune pathways, and specific alterations of immune checkpoints, which would benefit risk assessment in the clinic and understanding of pathogenesis regarding LT tolerance. Further clinical validations are warranted for our findings.