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Chen DX, Lu CH, Na N, Yin RX, Huang F. Endothelial progenitor cell-derived extracellular vesicles: the world of potential prospects for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:72. [PMID: 38840175 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01255-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have emerged as a predominant threat to human health, surpassing the incidence and mortality rates of neoplastic diseases. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as vital mediators in intercellular communication and material exchange. Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), recognized as precursors of vascular endothelial cells (ECs), have garnered considerable attention in recent years due to the potential therapeutic value of their derived extracellular vesicles (EPC-EVs) in the context of CVDs. This comprehensive review systematically explores the origins, characteristics, and functions of EPCs, alongside the classification, properties, biogenesis, and extraction techniques of EVs, with particular emphasis on their protective roles in CVDs. Additionally, we delve into the essential bioactive components of EPC-EVs, including microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and proteins, analyzing their beneficial effects in promoting angiogenesis, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities, anti-fibrosis, anti-apoptosis, and myocardial regeneration. Furthermore, this review comprehensively investigates the therapeutic potential of EPC-EVs across various CVDs, encompassing acute myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, atherosclerosis, non-ischemic cardiomyopathies, and diabetic cardiovascular disease. Lastly, we summarize the potential challenges associated with the clinical application of EPC-EVs and outline future directions, aiming to offer a valuable resource for both theoretical insights and practical applications of EPC-EVs in managing CVDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- De-Xin Chen
- Department of Cardiology & Guangxi Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases Control and Prevention & Guangxi Clinical Research Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Chuang-Hong Lu
- Department of Cardiology & Guangxi Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases Control and Prevention & Guangxi Clinical Research Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Na Na
- Department of Neuroscience, Scripps Research Institute, No.10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Rui-Xing Yin
- Department of Cardiology & Guangxi Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases Control and Prevention & Guangxi Clinical Research Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Feng Huang
- Department of Cardiology & Guangxi Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases Control and Prevention & Guangxi Clinical Research Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China.
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2
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Zeng Q, Mousa M, Nadukkandy AS, Franssens L, Alnaqbi H, Alshamsi FY, Safar HA, Carmeliet P. Understanding tumour endothelial cell heterogeneity and function from single-cell omics. Nat Rev Cancer 2023:10.1038/s41568-023-00591-5. [PMID: 37349410 DOI: 10.1038/s41568-023-00591-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Anti-angiogenic therapies (AATs) are used to treat different types of cancers. However, their success is limited owing to insufficient efficacy and resistance. Recently, single-cell omics studies of tumour endothelial cells (TECs) have provided new mechanistic insight. Here, we overview the heterogeneity of human TECs of all tumour types studied to date, at the single-cell level. Notably, most human tumour types contain varying numbers but only a small population of angiogenic TECs, the presumed targets of AATs, possibly contributing to the limited efficacy of and resistance to AATs. In general, TECs are heterogeneous within and across all tumour types, but comparing TEC phenotypes across tumours is currently challenging, owing to the lack of a uniform nomenclature for endothelial cells and consistent single-cell analysis protocols, urgently raising the need for a more consistent approach. Nonetheless, across most tumour types, universal TEC markers (ACKR1, PLVAP and IGFBP3) can be identified. Besides angiogenesis, biological processes such as immunomodulation and extracellular matrix organization are among the most commonly predicted enriched signatures of TECs across different tumour types. Although angiogenesis and extracellular matrix targets have been considered for AAT (without the hoped success), the immunomodulatory properties of TECs have not been fully considered as a novel anticancer therapeutic approach. Therefore, we also discuss progress, limitations, solutions and novel targets for AAT development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Zeng
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven and Center for Cancer Biology, VIB, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mira Mousa
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Aisha Shigna Nadukkandy
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven and Center for Cancer Biology, VIB, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Heterogeneity, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lies Franssens
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven and Center for Cancer Biology, VIB, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Halima Alnaqbi
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Fatima Yousif Alshamsi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Habiba Al Safar
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven and Center for Cancer Biology, VIB, Leuven, Belgium.
- Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Heterogeneity, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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Bertazza Partigiani N, Negrisolo S, Carraro A, Marzenta D, Manaresi E, Gallinella G, Barzon L, Benetti E. Pre-Existing Intrarenal Parvovirus B19 Infection May Relate to Antibody-Mediated Rejection in Pediatric Kidney Transplant Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119147. [PMID: 37298109 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections can lead to transplant dysfunction, and their possible role in rejection is described. In total, 218 protocol biopsies performed in 106 children at 6, 12 and 24 months after transplantation were analyzed according to Banff '15. RT-PCR for cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, BK virus and Parvovirus B19 was performed on blood and bioptic samples at the time of transplant and each protocol biopsy. The prevalence of intrarenal viral infection increases between 6 and 12 months after transplantation (24% vs. 44%, p = 0.007). Intrarenal Parvovirus B19 infection is also associated with antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR) (50% ABMR vs. 19% T-cell-mediated rejection, p = 0.04). Moreover, Parvovirus infection is higher at 12 months of follow-up and it decreases at 48 months (40.4% vs. 14%, p = 0.02), while in 24% of grafts, Parvovirus is already detectable at the moment of transplantation. Intrarenal Parvovirus B19 infection seems to be related to ABMR in pediatric kidney recipients. The graft itself may be the way of transmission for Parvovirus, so performance of a PCR test for Parvovirus B19 should be considered to identify high-risk patients. Intrarenal Parvovirus infection presents mainly during the first-year post-transplantation; thus, we recommend an active surveillance of donor-specific antibodies (DSA) in patients with intrarenal Parvovirus B19 infection during this period. Indeed, it should be considered a treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins in patients with intrarenal Parvovirus B19 infection and DSA positivity, even in the absence of ABMR criteria for kidney biopsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Bertazza Partigiani
- Pediatric Nephrology, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Susanna Negrisolo
- Laboratory of Immunopathology and Molecular Biology of the Kidney, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padova, 35127 Padua, Italy
- Pediatric Research Institute "IRP Città della Speranza", 35127 Padua, Italy
| | - Andrea Carraro
- Laboratory of Immunopathology and Molecular Biology of the Kidney, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padova, 35127 Padua, Italy
| | - Diana Marzenta
- Pediatric Nephrology, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
- Laboratory of Immunopathology and Molecular Biology of the Kidney, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padova, 35127 Padua, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Manaresi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gallinella
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, 35121 Padua, Italy
| | - Elisa Benetti
- Pediatric Nephrology, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
- Laboratory of Immunopathology and Molecular Biology of the Kidney, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padova, 35127 Padua, Italy
- Pediatric Research Institute "IRP Città della Speranza", 35127 Padua, Italy
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4
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Ding S, Zhang X, Qiu H, Wo J, Zhang F, Na J. Non-cardiomyocytes in the heart in embryo development, health, and disease, a single-cell perspective. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:873264. [PMID: 36393852 PMCID: PMC9661523 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.873264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent single-cell atlases of the heart gave unprecedented details about the diversity of cell types and states during heart development in health and disease conditions. Beyond a profiling tool, researchers also use single-cell analyses to dissect the mechanism of diseases in animal models. The new knowledge from these studies revealed that beating cardiomyocytes account for less than 50% of the total heart cell population. In contrast, non-cardiomyocytes (NCMs), such as cardiac fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune cells, make up the remaining proportion and have indispensable roles in structural support, homeostasis maintenance, and injury repair of the heart. In this review, we categorize the composition and characteristics of NCMs from the latest single-cell studies of the heart in various contexts and compare the findings from both human samples and mouse models. This information will enrich our understanding of the cellular basis of heart development and diseases and provide insights into the potential therapeutic targets in NCMs to repair the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangyuan Ding
- School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University and Peking University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Shuangyuan Ding, ; Jie Na,
| | - Xingwu Zhang
- School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Qiu
- School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaoyang Wo
- Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University and Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Fengzhi Zhang
- Central Laboratory, First Hospital of Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Na
- School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Shuangyuan Ding, ; Jie Na,
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5
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Zhang J, Song C, Tian Y, Yang X. Single-Cell RNA Sequencing in Lung Cancer: Revealing Phenotype Shaping of Stromal Cells in the Microenvironment. Front Immunol 2022; 12:802080. [PMID: 35126365 PMCID: PMC8807562 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.802080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The lung tumor microenvironment, which is composed of heterogeneous cell populations, plays an important role in the progression of lung cancer and is closely related to therapeutic efficacy. Increasing evidence has shown that stromal components play a key role in regulating tumor invasion, metastasis and drug resistance. Therefore, a better understanding of stromal components in the tumor microenvironment is helpful for the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer. Rapid advances in technology have brought our understanding of disease into the genetic era, and single-cell RNA sequencing has enabled us to describe gene expression profiles with unprecedented resolution, enabling quantitative analysis of gene expression at the single-cell level to reveal the correlations among heterogeneity, signaling pathways, drug resistance and microenvironment molding in lung cancer, which is important for the treatment of this disease. In this paper, several common single-cell RNA sequencing methods and their advantages and disadvantages are briefly introduced to provide a reference for selection of suitable methods. Furthermore, we review the latest progress of single-cell RNA sequencing in the study of stromal cells in the lung tumor microenvironment.
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6
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Aquino JB, Sierra R, Montaldo LA. Diverse cellular origins of adult blood vascular endothelial cells. Dev Biol 2021; 477:117-132. [PMID: 34048734 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
During embryonic stages, vascular endothelial cells (ECs) originate from the mesoderm, at specific extraembryonic and embryonic regions, through a process called vasculogenesis. In the adult, EC renewal/replacement mostly depend on local resident ECs or endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). Nevertheless, contribution from circulating ECs/EPCs was also reported. In addition, cells lacking from EC/EPC markers with in vitro extended plasticity were shown to originate endothelial-like cells (ELCs). Most of these cells consist of mesenchymal stromal progenitors, which would eventually get mobilized from the bone marrow after injury. Based on that, current knowledge on different mouse and human bone marrow stromal cell (BM-SC) subpopulations, able to contribute with mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs), is herein reviewed. Such analyses underline an unexpected heterogeneity among sinusoidal LepR+ stromal/CAR cells. For instance, in a recent report a subgroup of LepR+ stromal/CAR progenitors, which express GLAST and is traced in Wnt1Cre;R26RTom mice, was found to contribute with ELCs in vivo. These GLAST + Wnt1+ BM-SCs were shown to get mobilized to the peripheral blood and to contribute with liver regeneration. Other sources of ELCs, such as adipose, neural and dental pulp tissues, were also published. Finally, mechanisms likely involved in the enhanced cellular plasticity properties of bone marrow/adipose tissue stromal cells, able to originate ELCs, are assessed. In the future, strategies to analyze the in vivo expression profile of stromal cells, with MSC properties, in combination with screening of active genomic regions at the single cell-level, during early postnatal development and/or after injury, will likely help understanding properties of these ELC sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge B Aquino
- CONICET-Universidad Austral, Instituto de Investigaciones en Medicina Traslacional (IIMT), Developmental Biology & Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Argentina.
| | - Romina Sierra
- CONICET-Universidad Austral, Instituto de Investigaciones en Medicina Traslacional (IIMT), Developmental Biology & Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Argentina
| | - Laura A Montaldo
- CONICET-Universidad Austral, Instituto de Investigaciones en Medicina Traslacional (IIMT), Developmental Biology & Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Argentina
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7
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Pons S, Arnaud M, Loiselle M, Arrii E, Azoulay E, Zafrani L. Immune Consequences of Endothelial Cells' Activation and Dysfunction During Sepsis. Crit Care Clin 2020; 36:401-413. [PMID: 32172821 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccc.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The vascular endothelium provides a direct interface between circulating blood cells and parenchymal cells. Thus, it has a key role in vasomotor tone regulation, primary hemostasis, vascular barrier, and immunity. In the case of systemic inflammation, endothelial cell (EC) activation initiates a powerful innate immune response to eliminate the pathogen. In some specific conditions, ECs may also contribute to the activation of adaptive immunity and the recruitment of antigen-specific lymphocytes. However, the loss of EC functions or an exaggerated activation of ECs during sepsis can lead to multiorgan failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Pons
- INSERM U976, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France
| | - Marine Arnaud
- INSERM U976, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France
| | - Maud Loiselle
- INSERM U976, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France
| | - Eden Arrii
- INSERM U976, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France
| | - Elie Azoulay
- Medical Intensive Care Unit, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France
| | - Lara Zafrani
- INSERM U976, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France; Medical Intensive Care Unit, Saint-Louis Teaching Hospital, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, Paris 75010, France.
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8
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Kadle RL, Abdou SA, Villarreal-Ponce AP, Soares MA, Sultan DL, David JA, Massie J, Rifkin WJ, Rabbani P, Ceradini DJ. Microenvironmental cues enhance mesenchymal stem cell-mediated immunomodulation and regulatory T-cell expansion. PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29513756 PMCID: PMC5841747 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are known to both have powerful immunosuppressive properties and promote allograft tolerance. Determining the environmental oxygen tension and inflammatory conditions under which MSCs are optimally primed for this immunosuppressive function is essential to their utilization in promoting graft tolerance. Of particular interest is the mechanisms governing the interaction between MSCs and regulatory T cells (Tregs), which is relatively unknown. We performed our experiments utilizing rat bone marrow derived MSCs. We observed that priming MSCs in hypoxia promotes maintenance of stem-like characteristics, with greater expression of typical MSC cell-surface markers, increased proliferation, and maintenance of differentiation potential. Addition of autologous MSCs to CD4+/allogeneic endothelial cell (EC) co-culture increases regulatory T cell (Treg) proliferation, which is further enhanced when MSCs are primed in hypoxia. Furthermore, MSC-mediated Treg expansion does not require direct cell-cell contact. The expression of indolamine 2,3-dioxygenase, a mediator of MSC immunomodulation, increases when MSCs are primed in hypoxia, and inhibition of IDO significantly decreases the expansion of Tregs. Priming with inflammatory cytokines IFNγ and TNFα increases also expression of markers associated with MSC immunomodulatory function, but decreases MSC proliferation. The expression of IDO also increases when MSCs are primed with inflammatory cytokines. However, there is no increase in Treg expansion when MSCs are primed with IFNγ, suggesting an alternate mechanism for inflammatory-stimulated MSC immunomodulation. Overall, these results suggest that MSCs primed in hypoxia or inflammatory conditions are optimally primed for immunosuppressive function. These results provide a clearer picture of how to enhance MSC immunomodulation for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohini L. Kadle
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Salma A. Abdou
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | | | - Marc A. Soares
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Darren L. Sultan
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Joshua A. David
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jonathan Massie
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - William J. Rifkin
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Piul Rabbani
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Daniel J. Ceradini
- NYU Langone Medical Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Zhao S, Jia T, Tang Y, Zhang X, Mao H, Tian X, Li R, Ma L, Chen G. Reduced mRNA and Protein Expression Levels of Tet Methylcytosine Dioxygenase 3 in Endothelial Progenitor Cells of Patients of Type 2 Diabetes With Peripheral Artery Disease. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2859. [PMID: 30574144 PMCID: PMC6291445 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) with immunological properties repair microvasculature to prevent the complications in patients with diabetes. Epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation alter the functions of cells. Tet methylcytosine dioxygenases (TETs) are enzymes responsible for the demethylation of cytosine on genomic DNA in cells. We hypothesized that EPCs of diabetic patients with peripheral artery disease (D-PAD) might have altered expression levels of TETs. Subjects who were non-diabetic (ND, n = 22), with diabetes only (D, n = 29) and with D-PAD (n = 22) were recruited for the collection of EPCs, which were isolated and subjected to analysis. The mRNA and protein expression levels of TET1, TET2, and TET3 were determined using real-time PCR and immunoblot, respectively. The TET1 mRNA expression level in ND group was lower than that in the D and D-PAD groups. The TET3 mRNA level in the ND group was higher than that in the D group, which was higher than that in the D-PAD group. The TET1 protein level in the D-PAD group, but not the D group, was higher than that in the ND group. The TET2 protein level in the D-PAD group, but not the D group, was lower than that in the ND group. The TET3 protein level in the ND group was higher than that in the D group, which was higher than that in the D-PAD group, which is the lowest among the three groups. The changes of TETs protein levels were due to the alterations of their transcripts. These probably lead to epigenetic changes, which may be responsible for the reductions of EPCs numbers and functions in patients with the D-PAD. The expression pattern of TET3 mRNA and TET3 protein in EPCs may be a biomarker of angiopathy in diabetic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology, Wuhan Central Hospital, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Shi Zhao
| | - Ting Jia
- Department of Endocrinology, Wuhan Central Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Yang Tang
- School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Hong Mao
- Department of Endocrinology, Wuhan Central Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaojia Tian
- School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Rui Li
- School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lu Ma
- School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guoxun Chen
- Department of Nutrition, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
- Guoxun Chen
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10
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Al-Soudi A, Kaaij MH, Tas SW. Endothelial cells: From innocent bystanders to active participants in immune responses. Autoimmun Rev 2017; 16:951-962. [PMID: 28698091 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2017.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The endothelium is crucially important for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body under homeostatic conditions. However, it also contributes to pathology, including the initiation and perpetuation of inflammation. Understanding the function of endothelial cells (ECs) in inflammatory diseases and molecular mechanisms involved may lead to novel approaches to dampen inflammation and restore homeostasis. In this article, we discuss the various functions of ECs in inflammation with a focus on pathological angiogenesis, attraction of immune cells, antigen presentation, immunoregulatory properties and endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT). We also review the current literature on approaches to target these processes in ECs to modulate immune responses and advance anti-inflammatory therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Al-Soudi
- Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, Department of Clinical Immunology & Rheumatology and Laboratory for Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M H Kaaij
- Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, Department of Clinical Immunology & Rheumatology and Laboratory for Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S W Tas
- Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, Department of Clinical Immunology & Rheumatology and Laboratory for Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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11
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Functional and Biological Role of Endothelial Precursor Cells in Tumour Progression: A New Potential Therapeutic Target in Haematological Malignancies. Stem Cells Int 2015; 2016:7954580. [PMID: 26788072 PMCID: PMC4691637 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7954580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
It was believed that vasculogenesis occurred only during embryo life and that postnatal formation of vessels arose from angiogenesis. Recent findings demonstrate the existence of Endothelial Precursor Cells (EPCs), which take partin postnatal vasculogenesis. EPCs are recruited from the bone marrow under the stimulation of growth factors and cytokines and reach the sites of neovascularization in both physiological and pathological conditions such as malignancies where they contribute to the “angiogenic switch” and tumor progression. An implementation of circulating EPCs in the bloodstream of patients with haematological malignancies has been demonstrated. This increase is strictly related to the bone marrow microvessel density and correlated with a poor prognosis. The EPCs characterization is a very complex process and still under investigation. This literature review aims to provide an overview of the functional and biological role of EPCs in haematological malignancies and to investigate their potential as a new cancer therapeutic target.
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12
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Yang Z, Wang C, Yang S, Hong T, Wang F, Xia L, Wang C. Endothelial progenitor cells induce transplant arteriosclerosis via VEGFR-1/2 activity. Atherosclerosis 2014; 238:26-32. [PMID: 25437886 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute rejection (AR) after organ transplantation results in transplant arteriosclerosis (TA). Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are involved in tissue repair and blood vessel formation but are suspected to be a cause of TA. METHODS In this study, we introduced a syngeneic and allogeneic abdominal aortic transplant model with C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Syngeneic and allogeneic grafts were histopathologically analyzed after transplantation. Bone marrow-derived EPCs were injected into transplant model animals to observe their distribution and temporal concentration changes. Changes of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR-1), phosphorylated VEGFR-1 (pVEGFR-1), VEGFR-2, pVEGFR-2, protein kinase B (Akt), pAkt, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (Erk1), pErk1 levels in EPCs upon VEGF165 and the VEGFR inhibitor Vandetanib exposure were analyzed in vitro with western blotting. RESULTS In the allogeneic transplant group, two weeks after transplantation, formations of new intima layers could be observed, and its proliferation gradually increased to four and six weeks post-transplantation (p < 0.05), accompanied by significant arterial stenoses. Exogenous EPCs mainly localized to the damaged sites of the transplant arteries. In vivo, Vandetanib caused a significant dose dependent decrease of transplant hyperplasia (p < 0.05) and inhibited VEGF related proliferation, migration and adhesion of EPCs. CONCLUSION Vandetanib treatment can reduce arteriosclerosis induced by abdominal aorta transplantation by blocking VEGFRs in EPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaohua Yang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Can Wang
- Biological Product and Biochemistry Drug Division, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, No. 1500 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shouguo Yang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Tao Hong
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Fangshun Wang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Limin Xia
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Chunsheng Wang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, No 180 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, China.
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Kim J, Eligehausen S, Stehling M, Nikol S, Ko K, Waltenberger J, Klocke R. Generation of functional endothelial-like cells from adult mouse germline-derived pluripotent stem cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 443:700-5. [PMID: 24333870 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 12/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Functional endothelial cells and their progenitors are required for vascular development, adequate vascular function, vascular repair and for cell-based therapies of ischemic diseases. Currently, cell therapy is limited by the low abundance of patient-derived cells and by the functional impairment of autologous endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). In the present study, murine germline-derived pluripotent stem (gPS) cells were evaluated as a potential source for functional endothelial-like cells. Cells displaying an endothelial cell-like morphology were obtained from gPS cell-derived embryoid bodies using a combination of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-based selection of CD31-positive cells and their subsequent cultivation on OP9 stromal cells in the presence of VEGF-A. Real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, FACS analysis and immunofluorescence staining showed that the gPS cell-derived endothelial-like cells (gPS-ECs) expressed endothelial cell-specific markers including von Willebrand Factor, Tie2, VEGFR2/Flk1, intercellular adhesion molecule 2 and vascular endothelial-cadherin. The high expression of ephrin B2, as compared to Eph B4 and VEGFR3, suggests an arterial rather than a venous or lymphatic differentiation. Their capability to take up Dil-conjugated acetylated low-density lipoprotein and to form capillary-like networks on matrigel confirmed their functionality. We conclude that gPS cells could be a novel source of endothelial cells potentially suitable for regenerative cell-based therapies for ischemic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julee Kim
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Röntgenstr. 20, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Sarah Eligehausen
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Bldg. A1, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Stehling
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Röntgenstr. 20, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Sigrid Nikol
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Bldg. A1, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Kinarm Ko
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Röntgenstr. 20, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes Waltenberger
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Bldg. A1, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Rainer Klocke
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Bldg. A1, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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Wang R, Zhang K, Li S, Tong Z, Li G, Zhao Z, Zhao Y, Liu F, Lin X, Wang Z, Jiang Z. Apolipoprotein (a) impairs endothelial progenitor cell-mediated angiogenesis. DNA Cell Biol 2013; 32:243-51. [PMID: 23581552 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2013.1963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Improvement of blood flow and promotion of angiogenesis are important therapeutic measures for the treatment of ischemic peripheral vascular diseases. Since apolipoprotein (a) (apo (a)) is a glycoprotein with repetitive kringle domains exhibiting 75% to 98% structural homology with plasminogen (Plg), apo (a) may also have a negative effect on endothelial progenitor cell (EPC)-induced angiogenesis through Plg-like inhibitory effects on EPC proliferation, adhesion, migration, and angiogenesis. To evaluate the effect of apo (a) on EPCs-induced angiogenesis, EPCs were isolated from the bone marrow of apo (a) transgenic mice, wild-type litter mates, and normal mice. These cells were cultured without or with apo (a) before transplantation. Hindlimb ischemia models were surgically induced in mice, which then received an intravenous injection of 3×10(5) EPCs. At 3, 7, and 14 days post EPC transplantation, the adhesion, migration abilities, and capillary density in calf muscles were assessed. Results indicate that apo (a) significantly reduced the adhesion and migration abilities of EPCs. Furthermore, the tubule-like formation of EPCs on Matrigel gels was damaged. In vivo experiments showed the homing of EPCs to ischemic peripheral vascular, and the number of capillary vessels decreased significantly in apo(a) transgenic mice. This study demonstrated that apo (a) could attenuate the adhesion, migration, and homing abilities of EPCs and could impair the angiogenesis ability of EPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren Wang
- Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, University of South China, Hengyang City, China
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Cutolo M, Nadler SG. Advances in CTLA-4-Ig-mediated modulation of inflammatory cell and immune response activation in rheumatoid arthritis. Autoimmun Rev 2013; 12:758-67. [PMID: 23340277 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a multifactorial and polygenic immune-mediated disease, the pathogenesis of which involves different cell types. T and B lymphocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and osteoclasts have all been implicated in mediating the production of autoantibodies, proinflammatory cytokines and ultimately bone erosions. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 immunoglobulin fusion protein (CTLA-4-Ig, abatacept) is a unique biologic agent targeting the co-stimulatory molecules CD80/CD86, and is indicated for the treatment of moderate-to-severe RA in patients who have had an inadequate response to one or more disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, including methotrexate or anti-tumor necrosis factor agents. There is a growing body of evidence that, through selective modulation of the CD80/CD86 co-stimulatory molecules expressed by a variety of activated cell types, CTLA-4-Ig may inhibit the pathogenic RA process at several levels, both directly and indirectly. Here, we provide an overview of recent mechanistic studies of the action of CTLA-4-Ig on different cell types involved in mediating inflammation and joint damage in RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Cutolo
- Research Laboratory and Academic Unit of Clinical Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV, 6, 16132 Genova, Italy.
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Du F, Zhou J, Gong R, Huang X, Pansuria M, Virtue A, Li X, Wang H, Yang XF. Endothelial progenitor cells in atherosclerosis. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2012; 17:2327-49. [PMID: 22652782 DOI: 10.2741/4055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are involved in the maintenance of endothelial homoeostasis and in the process of new vessel formation. Experimental and clinical studies have shown that atherosclerosis is associated with reduced numbers and dysfunction of EPCs; and that medications alone are able to partially reverse the impairment of EPCs in patients with atherosclerosis. Therefore, novel EPC-based therapies may provide enhancement in restoring EPCs' population and improvement of vascular function. Here, for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying EPC impairment in atherosclerosis, we provide a comprehensive overview on EPC characteristics, phenotypes, and the signaling pathways underlying EPC impairment in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuyong Du
- Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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Strategies to reverse endothelial progenitor cell dysfunction in diabetes. EXPERIMENTAL DIABETES RESEARCH 2012; 2012:471823. [PMID: 22474422 PMCID: PMC3296202 DOI: 10.1155/2012/471823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bone-marrow-derived cells-mediated postnatal vasculogenesis has been reported as the main responsible for the regulation of vascular homeostasis in adults. Since their discovery, endothelial progenitor cells have been depicted as mediators of postnatal vasculogenesis for their peculiar phenotype (partially staminal and partially endothelial), their ability to differentiate in endothelial cell line and to be incorporated into the vessels wall during ischemia/damage. Diabetes mellitus, a condition characterized by cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, and micro- and macroangiopathy, showed a dysfunction of endothelial progenitor cells. Herein, we review the mechanisms involved in diabetes-related dysfunction of endothelial progenitor cells, highlighting how hyperglycemia affects the different steps of endothelial progenitor cells lifetime (i.e., bone marrow mobilization, trafficking into the bloodstream, differentiation in endothelial cells, and homing in damaged tissues/organs). Finally, we review preclinical and clinical strategies that aim to revert diabetes-induced dysfunction of endothelial progenitor cells as a means of finding new strategies to prevent diabetic complications.
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Preconditioned Endothelial Progenitor Cells Reduce Formation of Melanoma Metastases through SPARC-Driven Cell–Cell Interactions and Endocytosis. Cancer Res 2011; 71:4748-57. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-2449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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19
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Leicht SF, Schwarz TM, Hermann PC, Seissler J, Aicher A, Heeschen C. Adiponectin pretreatment counteracts the detrimental effect of a diabetic environment on endothelial progenitors. Diabetes 2011; 60:652-61. [PMID: 21270275 PMCID: PMC3028367 DOI: 10.2337/db10-0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It has been shown that vascular progenitors from patients with diabetes are dysfunctional. However, therapeutic strategies to counteract their reduced functional capacity are still lacking. Because adiponectin has reported salutary effects on endothelial function, we investigated the functional effects of globular adiponectin (gAcrp), the active domain of adiponectin, on isolated endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFC). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ECFC were isolated from peripheral blood of type 2 diabetic patients (dmECFC) and compared with ECFC of healthy young volunteers (yECFC) and nondiabetic age-matched control subjects (hECFC). Cells were treated with gAcrp for 48 h followed by assessment of cell counts, cell cycle analysis, and migration capacity. For in vivo evaluation, human ECFC were injected into normoglycemic or streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemic nu/nu mice after hind limb ischemia. RESULTS Whereas dmECFC were functionally impaired compared with yECFC and hECFC, gAcrp significantly enhanced their in vitro proliferation and migratory activity. In vitro effects were significantly stronger in hECFC compared with dmECFC and were mediated through the cyclooxygenase-2 pathway. Most important, however, we observed a profound and sustained increase of the in vivo neovascularization in mice receiving gAcrp-pretreated dmECFC compared with untreated dmECFC under both normoglycemic and hyperglycemic conditions. CONCLUSIONS Pretreatment of ECFC with gAcrp enhanced the functional capacity of ECFC in vitro and in vivo in normoglycemic and hyperglycemic environments. Therefore, preconditioning of dmECFC with gAcrp may be a novel approach to counteract their functional impairment in diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon F. Leicht
- Clinical Research Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Theresa M. Schwarz
- Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Patrick C. Hermann
- Clinical Research Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jochen Seissler
- Diabetes Centre, School of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Alexandra Aicher
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K
| | - Christopher Heeschen
- Clinical Research Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre, Madrid, Spain
- Corresponding author: Christopher Heeschen,
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20
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Endothelial Progenitor Cells Possess Monocyte-like Antigen-presenting and T-cell-Co-stimulatory Capacity: Erratum. Transplantation 2010. [DOI: 10.1097/tp.0b013e3181f9398e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Chao H, Hirschi KK. Hemato-vascular origins of endothelial progenitor cells? Microvasc Res 2010; 79:169-73. [PMID: 20149806 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2010.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Accepted: 02/04/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have suggested the presence of precursor cells in various tissues and organs with potential to differentiate into endothelial and mural cells, and contribute to blood vessel formation in different physiological and pathological circumstances. Although there is still a lack of consensus in the field regarding the origin, and phenotypic and functional characteristics of putative vascular progenitor cell populations, all agree that further studies are needed to fully explore and exploit their great potential as cell therapy for vascular diseases, as modulators of postnatal blood vessel formation, and as disease biomarkers. Herein, we will review the phenotypic and functional characteristics of endothelial progenitor/precursor cell types thought to be derived from the hematopoietic and vascular systems and contribute to postnatal blood vessel formation, and discuss their potential lineage relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsu Chao
- Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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22
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Pearson JD. Endothelial progenitor cells--an evolving story. Microvasc Res 2010; 79:162-8. [PMID: 20043930 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/20/2009] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The first description of endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) in 1997 led rapidly to substantial changes in our understanding of angiogenesis, and within 5 years to the first clinical studies in humans using bone marrow derived EPC to enhance coronary neovascularisation and cardiac function after myocardial ischemia. However, to improve the success of this therapy a clearer understanding of the biology of EPC is needed. This article summarises recent data indicating that most EPC are not, in fact, endothelial progenitors but can be better described as angiogenic monocytes, and explores the implications this has for their future therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D Pearson
- King's College London, Cardiovascular Division, London SE1 9NH, UK.
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