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Salari M, Rezaei K, Mirdehghan A, Behzadi A, Etemadifar M. A review on approach to a twitchy tongue in neurology. Neurol Sci 2023:10.1007/s10072-023-06771-3. [PMID: 37043038 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-023-06771-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several etiologies are responsible for presentation of a twitching tongue in clinical practice. Some of these etiologies cause an isolated hyperkinetic tongue muscle, and some others cause it along with other signs and symptoms. OBJECTIVES The present paper aims to review the causes, pathology, and presentations reported with twitchy tongue. An anatomical basis of the etiologies responsible for presentation of a twitchy tongue and hyperkinetic movement disorders of this muscle is pursued. METHOD The reporting of this systematic review was guided by the standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) Statement. All of the research papers conducted with keywords described in the method section between 2000 and 2022 were used, and review articles and articles without any human subject and without any described hyperkinetic movement disorders of the tongue were excluded. RESULTS All of the etiologies responsible for hyperkinetic movement disorders of tongue were listed in the basis of their anatomical site of effect; cortical region, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brain stem, nucleus and nerve, and neuromuscular junction. One last remained part is the "not classified" section, which contains the etiologies with no particular anatomical origin. CONCLUSION There are a variety of responsible etiologies for presentation of a twitchy tongue, and in the matter of a complaint of hyperkinetic tongue presentation, physicians should consider anatomical, functional, and psychological etiologies and other signs and symptoms must be participated in the diagnosis process to achieve a proper medical decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehri Salari
- Functional Neurosurgery Research Center, Shohada Tajrish Comprehensive Neurosurgical Center of Excellence, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kamran Rezaei
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Alimohammad Mirdehghan
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Arya Behzadi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Etemadifar
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Medical School, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran
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Takeuchi H, Mori Y, Tsutsumi Y. Pathophysiology, prognosis and treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2022; 12:20451253221117313. [PMID: 36312846 PMCID: PMC9597038 DOI: 10.1177/20451253221117313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia (TD), a movement disorder associated with antipsychotics, most frequently affects the lower face and jaw muscles, but can also affect walking, breathing and use of the hands and limbs. Knowledge of TD among physicians may be limited, and the pathophysiology of TD is poorly understood. We conducted this review to summarise the current knowledge surrounding the pathophysiology of TD and present recommendations for prevention and treatment based on a literature search and roundtable discussion attended by psychiatrists in Japan. It has been suggested that dopamine hypersensitivity, damaged gamma-aminobutyric acidergic neurons and/or increased production of reactive oxygen species may contribute to development of TD. Symptoms can profoundly affect everyday life; patients who develop TD have poorer prognoses, worse health-related quality of life, greater social withdrawal and higher mortality than patients without TD. Traditional treatment options include dietary supplements, although evidence for their effectiveness is low. Among pharmaceutical interventions, there is moderate evidence that switching to the second-generation antipsychotic clozapine, which has a lower affinity for dopamine D2 receptors than other antipsychotics, may improve symptoms. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT-2) inhibitors, which oppose the increased dopaminergic activity associated with prolonged antipsychotic use by interfering with dopamine uptake and storage, have the strongest evidence for efficacy. VMAT-2 inhibitors are approved in the United States for the treatment of TD, and the first VMAT-2 inhibitor was approved in Japan for this indication in March 2022. Most guidelines recommend treating TD by first reducing the dose of antipsychotics or switching to clozapine or other second-generation antipsychotics, which have a lower association with TD than first-generation antipsychotics. We recommend focusing on prevention and monitoring for TD when prescribing antipsychotics, given that TD is often irreversible. Physicians should treat with antipsychotics only when necessary and at the lowest effective dose, and frequently monitor for TD symptoms. Plain Language Summary Plain Language Summary (In Japanese). Visual Summary Visual Summary (In Japanese).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyoshi Takeuchi
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, School of
Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582,
Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Mori
- Department of Psychiatry, Aichi Medical
University, Aichi, Japan
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3
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Setting the record straight: The nosology of tardive syndromes. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2019; 59:146-150. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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4
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Frei K, Truong DD, Fahn S, Jankovic J, Hauser RA. The nosology of tardive syndromes. J Neurol Sci 2018; 389:10-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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5
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Lin CC, Ondo WG. Non-VMAT2 inhibitor treatments for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Neurol Sci 2018; 389:48-54. [PMID: 29433806 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2018.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Although VMAT2-inhibitors are now established as first-line treatment for tardive dyskinesia, not all patients respond to, or tolerate them. Numerous other agents have been adopted to treat tardive dyskinesia, but with variable results and generally lower quality methodologic reports. Amantadine is the most promising but benzodiazepines, branched chain neutral amino acids, Vitamin B6, several nutraceuticals, and botulinum toxin injections might help some patients. In all cases, better placebo controlled trials are needed before definitive recommendations can be made.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William G Ondo
- Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston, TX, USA; Weill Cornell Medical School, New York, NY, USA.
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6
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Stegmayer K, Walther S, van Harten P. Tardive Dyskinesia Associated with Atypical Antipsychotics: Prevalence, Mechanisms and Management Strategies. CNS Drugs 2018; 32:135-147. [PMID: 29427000 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-018-0494-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
All antipsychotics, including the atypical antipsychotics (AAPs), may cause tardive dyskinesia (TD), a potentially irreversible movement disorder, the pathophysiology of which is currently unknown. The prevention and treatment of TD remain major challenges for clinicians. We conducted a PubMed search to review the prevalence and etiology of and management strategies for TD associated with AAPs. TD prevalence rates varied substantially between studies, with an estimated prevalence of around 20% in patients using AAPs. The risk of TD is lower with AAPs than with typical antipsychotics (TAPs) but remains a problem because AAPs are increasingly being prescribed. Important risk factors associated with TD include the duration of antipsychotic use, age, and ethnicity other than Caucasian. Theories about the etiology of TD include supersensitivity of the dopamine receptors and oxidative stress, but other neurotransmitters and factors are probably involved. Studies concerning the management of TD have considerable methodological limitations. Thus, recommendations for the management of TD are based on a few trials and clinical experience, and no general guidelines for the management of TD can be established. The best management strategy remains prevention. Caution is required when prescribing antipsychotics, and regular screening is needed for early detection of TD. Other strategies may include reducing the AAP dosage, switching to clozapine, or administering vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)-2 inhibitors. In severe cases, local injections of botulinum toxin or deep brain stimulation may be considered. More clinical trials in larger samples are needed to gather valid information on the effect of interventions targeting TD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Stegmayer
- University Hospital of Psychiatry, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3060, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Sebastian Walther
- University Hospital of Psychiatry, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3060, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter van Harten
- Psychiatric Centre GGz Centraal, Innova, Amersfoort, The Netherlands.,School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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7
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Jankovic J. An update on new and unique uses of botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Toxicon 2017; 147:84-88. [PMID: 28888928 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The therapeutic applications of botulinum toxin (BoNT) have grown manifold since its initial approval in 1989 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of strabismus, blepharospasm, and other facial spasms. Although it is the most potent biologic toxin known to man, long-term studies have established its safety in the treatment of a variety of neurologic and non-neurologic disorders. This review focuses on some novel and uncommon uses of BoNT in the treatment of movement disorders, such as oromandibular dystonia, including bruxism, anterocollis, camptocormia, tremor, tics, tardive and levodopa-induced dyskinesia, and restless legs syndrome. Despite a paucity of randomized controlled trials and lack of FDA approval for these movement disorders, there is growing body of evidence that BoNT provides benefit to patients with these hyperkinetic movement disorders and that BoNT is a safe treatment when used by clinicians skilled in the administration of the drug for these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Jankovic
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States. http://www.jankovic.org
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Salem H, Pigott T, Zhang XY, Zeni CP, Teixeira AL. Antipsychotic-induced Tardive dyskinesia: from biological basis to clinical management. Expert Rev Neurother 2017; 17:883-894. [PMID: 28750568 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2017.1361322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a chronic and disabling movement disorder with a complex pathophysiological basis. A significant percentage of patients does not receive correct diagnosis, resulting in delayed or inaccurate treatment and poor outcome. Therefore, there is a critical need for prompt recognition, implementation of efficacious treatment regimens and long-term follow up of patients with TD. Areas covered: The current paper provides an overview of emerging data concerning proposed pathophysiology theories, epidemiology, risk factors, and therapeutic strategies for TD. Expert commentary: Despite considerable research efforts, TD remains a challenge in the treatment of psychosis as the available strategies remain sub-optimal. The best scenario will always be the prophylaxis or prevention of TD, which entails limiting the use of antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitham Salem
- a Harris County psychiatric center, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA.,b Neuropsychiatry program, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA
| | - Teresa Pigott
- a Harris County psychiatric center, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA
| | - Xiang Y Zhang
- b Neuropsychiatry program, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA
| | - Cristian P Zeni
- c Pediatric mood disorder/ADHD program, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA
| | - Antonio L Teixeira
- a Harris County psychiatric center, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA.,b Neuropsychiatry program, Department Psychiatry and behavioral sciences, McGovern medical school , The university of texas health science center at Houston , TX , USA
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Abstract
Dyskinesias encompass a variety of different hyperkinetic phenomenologies, particularly chorea, dystonia, stereotypies, and akathisia. The main types of drug-induced dyskinesias include levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) in patients with Parkinson's disease and tardive syndrome (TS), typically present in patients with psychiatric or gastrointenstinal disorders treated with dopamine receptor blocking drugs, also referred to as neuroleptics. Besides preventive measures (i.e., avoiding the use of the offending drugs), general treatment strategies include slow taper of the offending agent and use of dopamine-depleting agents like tetrabenazine. Botulinum toxin may be helpful for wearing off focal dystonia and some forms of tardive dystonia. Deep brain stimulation is usually reserved for patients with disabling motor fluctuations, LID, and for severe TS that cannot be managed medically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanya Vijayakumar
- Department of Neurology, Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, 7200 Cambridge, Suite 9A, Houston, TX, 77030-4202, USA
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Department of Neurology, Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, 7200 Cambridge, Suite 9A, Houston, TX, 77030-4202, USA.
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Cloud LJ, Zutshi D, Factor SA. Tardive dyskinesia: therapeutic options for an increasingly common disorder. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:166-76. [PMID: 24310603 PMCID: PMC3899488 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-013-0222-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a serious, often disabling, movement disorder that is caused by medications that block dopamine receptors (i.e., neuroleptics, anti-emetics). There is currently no standard treatment approach for physicians confronted with such patients. This may be the result of notions that TD is disappearing because of the switch to second-generation antipsychotic agents and that it is largely reversible. In this article we demonstrate that second-generation antipsychotics do, indeed, cause TD and, in fact, the frequency is likely higher than expected because of growing off-label uses and a tripling of prescriptions written in the last 10 years. In addition, studies demonstrate that TD actually remits in only a minority of patients when these drugs are withdrawn. Furthermore, neuroleptic agents are often utilized to treat TD, despite prolonged exposure being a risk factor for irreversibility. The outcome of these trends is a growing population afflicted with TD. We review non-neuroleptic agents that have shown positive results in small, early-phase, blinded trials, including tetrabenazine, amantadine, levetiracetam, piracetam, clonazepam, propranolol, vitamin B6, and Ginkgo biloba. Other options, such as botulinum toxin and deep brain stimulation, will also be discussed, and a suggested treatment algorithm is provided. While these agents are reasonable treatment options at this time there is a need, with a concerted effort between neurology and psychiatry, for full-scale drug development, including multicenter, randomized, blinded trials to confirm the effectiveness of the agents that were positive in phase 2 trials and the development of newer ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie J. Cloud
- />Department of Neurology, Emory University, 1841 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329 USA
- />Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 6605 W. Broad Street, Richmond, VA USA
| | - Deepti Zutshi
- />Department of Neurology, Emory University, 1841 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329 USA
| | - Stewart A. Factor
- />Department of Neurology, Emory University, 1841 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329 USA
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11
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Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia (TDK) includes orobuccolingual movements and "piano-playing" movements of the limbs. It is a movement disorder of delayed onset that can occur in the setting of neuroleptic treatment as well as in other diseases and following treatment with other drugs. The specific pathophysiology resulting in TDK is still not completely understood but possible mechanisms include postsynaptic dopamine receptor hypersensitivity, abnormalities of striatal gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurons, and degeneration of striatal cholinergic interneurons. More recently, the theory of synaptic plasticity has been proposed. Considering these proposed mechanisms of disease, therapeutic interventions have attempted to manipulate dopamine, GABA, acetylcholine, norepinephrine and serotonin pathways and receptors. The data for the effectiveness of each class of drugs and the side effects were considered in turn.
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van Harten PN, Tenback DE. Tardive Dyskinesia: Clinical Presentation and Treatment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2011; 98:187-210. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-381328-2.00008-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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13
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Respiratory problems in neurologic movement disorders. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2010; 16:628-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Revised: 07/03/2010] [Accepted: 07/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Current world literature. Neuroanaesthesia. Pain medicine. Regional anaesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2010; 23:671-8. [PMID: 20811177 DOI: 10.1097/aco.0b013e32833f3f68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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