The Pholcodine Case. Cough Medicines, IgE-Sensitization, and Anaphylaxis: A Devious Connection

Drug allergy awareness and perspectives with the implementation of the International Classification of Diseases-11

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To understand the current global scale of drug hypersensitivity (DH) and drug allergy (DA), and to identify possible strategies to increase the accuracy of epidemiological data.

RECENT FINDINGS

Global patterns of DH/DA seem to be changing and increasing worldwide, but there are still great challenges in capturing quality DH/DA mortality and morbidity statistics (MMS). DH/DA MMS may gain new perspectives with the global implementation of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-11. Improving the quality of epidemiological data related to DH/DA should clarify areas of uncertainty, which would lead to better strategies to reduce the burden of these conditions.

SUMMARY

DH/DA remains a complex and unaddressed problem globally that often deprives patients of optimal medication choices and places them at risk for life-threatening reactions. DH/DA labels should contribute to people well being, by protecting true allergic individuals from being re-exposed to their allergic drugs and providing needed medications to individuals wrongly labeled as allergic or who have lost allergic sensitivity. The true rate of DH/DA is in fact unknown due to a number of factors, such as misdiagnosis, miscoding and under- and over-notification, among others. Moreover, there is lack of data about DH/DA epidemiology in many countries. Difficulties on collecting accurate and comparable data should be acknowledged, with great impact in the correct labeling DH/DA in electronic health records and official statistics. More accurate definitions, classification and coding may contribute to a better-quality MMS thanks to the ICD-11, under implementation worldwide. Improving the quality of epidemiological data related to DH/DA should clarify areas of uncertainty, which would lead to better strategies to reduce the burden of these conditions. As knowledge derived from populations is key information for more realistic decision-making, the construction of the new section addressed to DH/DA in the ICD-11 will allow the collection of more accurate epidemiological data to support quality management of patients, and facilitate healthcare planning to implement public health measures to prevent and reduce the morbidity and mortality attributable to these conditions.

Epidemiology of anaphylaxis: is the trend still going up?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To understand the current global scale of anaphylaxis and identify possible strategies to increase the accuracy of epidemiological data.

RECENT FINDINGS

Anaphylaxis mortality and morbidity statistics may gain new perspectives with the global implementation of the ICD-11. Improving the quality of epidemiological data related to anaphylaxis should clarify some areas of uncertainty about risk factors, leading to better targeting of strategies to protect those patients at risk, and support decision-making to facilitate health care planning and implementation of public health measures to prevent anaphylaxis.

SUMMARY

The true rate of anaphylaxis is unknown due to a number of factors, such as misdiagnosis, miscoding and undernotification. Moreover, there is lack of information about anaphylaxis epidemiology in many countries. Difficulties on collecting accurate and comparable data should be acknowledged and anaphylaxis data can vary widely. Currently, most robust data are derived from hospitalization datasets and national mortality databases. Anaphylaxis accounts for up to 0.26% of overall hospital admissions. It is suggested that the number of hospital admissions for anaphylaxis is increasing in many countries, both with respect to all-causes of anaphylaxis and by trigger, but the mortality rate remains low. However, there are still great challenges in capturing quality anaphylaxis mortality and morbidity statistics. Better understanding of anaphylaxis trends should clarify some areas of uncertainty about risk factors and prospect effective prevention strategies. As the knowledge derived from populations is key information for more realistic decision-making, the construction of the new section addressed to anaphylaxis in the ICD-11 will allow the collection of more accurate epidemiological data to support high quality management of patients, and to better facilitate health care planning to implement public health measures, reduce the morbidity and mortality attributable to anaphylaxis.

What do we know about perioperative hypersensitivity reactions and what can we do to improve perioperative safety?

Hypersensitivity reactions are an important aspect of perioperative care and are a crucial interdisciplinary issue in anaesthesiological practice, as well as allergological and laboratory diagnostics. This phenomenon was observed as early as the 1980s and 1990s in Western European countries, and knowledge on this subject has grown significantly over time. Although hypersensitivity reactions are not frequent events (the incidence of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions ranges from 1:386 to 1:13 000 procedures, with higher frequency - 1 per 6500 general anaesthesias with neuromuscular blocking agents administrations), their courses are unfortunately serious and life-threatening. It should also be noted that there is no information regarding the occurrence of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions in many countries. Hence, global assessment of the problem is underestimated. The primary source of actual knowledge comes from epidemiological studies, which indicate an increasing frequency of hypersensitivity reaction occurrence and changes in aetiological factors. The first report from France (1984 to 1989) described two main causes - neuromuscular blocking agents and hypnotic agents. The following years confirmed an increase in perioperative hypersensitivity reactions associated with latex and antibiotics. The most recent data from the National Audit Project 6 indicated increased participation of antibiotics, chlorhexidine, and contrast agents. The results of epidemiological analyses are the basis of medical management guidelines and practice modification. Thanks to the activity of many organisations monitoring the intensity and nature of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions, guidelines for diagnostics and management have been developed. This article presents the results of numerous studies, including the first and the most recent, from various geographical regions. The clinical significance, pathogenesis mechanisms are also discussed. This publication also presents important directions for further scientific and epidemiological research on perioperative hypersensitivity reactions.Key messagesThe incidence of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions ranges from 1:386 to 1:13 000 procedures, with higher frequency - 1 per 6500 general anaesthesias with neuromuscular blocking agents administrations.Reactions may occur during the first episode of anaesthesia, most frequently in the induction of general anaesthesia, and much less frequently during postoperative follow-up.The first reports of perioperative hypersensitivity reaction come from the 1990s, and knowledge on this subject has grown significantly over time.In many countries, multidisciplinary teams and organisations have been established to identify, monitor the occurrence of this phenomenon, and have set the directions of medical activities and have changed the rules and recommendations.There is no information about the occurrence of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions in many countries, and global assessment of the problem is underestimated. Additionally, there is a great need to develop a system to monitor their occurrence in other countries.The long-term epidemiologic studies have demonstrated variability in pharmacologic triggers. However, the main pharmacological substances (antibiotics, muscle relaxants, disinfectans, contrast agents) are related to aspects of patient safety during anaesthesia.

Perioperative Anaphylaxis

Perioperative anaphylaxis is a potentially life-threatening and under-recognized event most commonly caused by antibiotics, neuromuscular blocking agents, dyes, latex, and disinfectants. This review provides updates in the epidemiology and pathogenesis of perioperative anaphylaxis, discusses culprit agents, and highlights the tenets of management including a comprehensive allergy evaluation.

Amr AEG, Almehizia AA, Kamel AH. All-Solid-State Potentiometric Ion-Sensors Based on Tailored Imprinted Polymers for Pholcodine Determination

In recent times, the application of the use of ion-selective electrodes has expanded in the field of pharmaceutical analyses due to their distinction from other sensors in their high selectivity and low cost of measurement, in addition to their high measurement sensitivity. Cost-effective, reliable, and robust all-solid-state potentiometric selective electrodes were designed, characterized, and successfully used for pholcodine determination. The design of the sensor device was based on the use of a screen-printed electrode modified with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as a solid-contact transducer. Tailored pholcodine (PHO) molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared, characterized, and used as sensory receptors in the presented potentiometric sensing devices. The sensors exhibited a sensitivity of 31.6 ± 0.5 mV/decade (n = 5, R² = 0.9980) over the linear range of 5.5 × 10⁻⁶ M with a detection limit of 2.5 × 10⁻⁷ M. Real serum samples in addition to pharmaceutical formulations containing PHO were analyzed, and the results were compared with those obtained by the conventional standard liquid chromatographic approach. The presented analytical device showed an outstanding efficiency for fast, direct, and low-cost assessment of pholcodine levels in different matrices.

Incidence of Anaphylaxis to Sugammadex in a Single-Center Cohort of 19,821 Patients

BACKGROUND

Sugammadex is a modified cyclodextrin that is being increasingly used in anesthetic practice worldwide for the reversal of the aminosteroid neuromuscular blockers rocuronium and vecuronium. Its safety profile, however, is incompletely understood. One such aspect is the incidence of anaphylactic reactions that occur after its administration. While several case reports exist in the literature, there is a paucity of information on the actual incidence of anaphylactic reactions.

METHODS

A single-center retrospective chart review identified patients who experienced anaphylaxis to sugammadex in the institutional electronic medical record system. These charts were then reviewed to determine whether the etiology of anaphylaxis was sugammadex administration.

RESULTS

Two patients experienced anaphylaxis to sugammadex, which occurred in a single institution cohort of 19,821 patients who received 23,446 total doses. This rate is markedly lower than the 1/300 that the manufacturer's package insert states and also lower than the 1/2500 that the only other large cohort study performed has reported.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of anaphylaxis to sugammadex in this cohort of patients was 2 of 19,821 patients, who received a total of 23,446 doses.

Amr A, A. Elsayed E, Sayed AYA, Kamel AH. Paper-based potentiometric sensing devices modified with chemically reduced graphene oxide (CRGO) for trace level determination of pholcodine (opiate derivative drug)

Robust, reliable and cost-effective paper-based analytical device for potentiometric pholcodine (opiate derivative drug) ion sensing has been prepared and characterized. A printed pholcodinium (PHL)²⁺/5-nitrobarbiturate (NB)⁻ ion-association complex as a sensory material-based all-solid-state ion-selective electrode (ISE) on a chemically reduced graphene oxide (CRGO) solid-contact, and a printed all-solid-state Ag/AgCl reference electrode, has been combined on a hydrophobic paper substrate coated with fluorinated alkyl silane (CF₃(CF₂)₇CH₂CH₂SiCl₃, C^F₁₀). The sensors revealed a potentiometric slope of 28.7 ± 0.3 mV dec⁻¹ (R² = 0.9998) over a linear range starting from 2.0 × 10⁻⁷ M to 1.0 × 10⁻² M and a detection limit of 0.04 μg mL⁻¹. The repeatability and stability of the pholcodine paper-based sensor was found to be 2.32%. The RSD% (n = 6) was found to be 2.67% when using five different paper-based sensors. The sensor revealed an excellent selectivity towards PHL over dextromethorphan, codeine, ephedrine, carbinoxamine, caffeine, ketamine, and K⁺, Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ ions. It showed a good recovery (94–104%) for the determination of PHL in different artificial serum samples. The presented paper-based analytical device was successfully introduced for PHL determination in different pharmaceutical formulations (i.e. syrups and suspensions) containing pholcodine. The current work can be considered as a promising possible analytical tool to obtain cost-effective and disposable paper-based potentiometric sensing devices. These devices can be potentially manufacturable at large scales in pharmaceutical, clinical and forensic applications for opiate drug assessment.

Robust, reliable and cost-effective paper-based analytical device for potentiometric pholcodine (opiate derivative drug) ion sensing has been prepared and characterized.

Update on perioperative hypersensitivity reactions: joint document from the Brazilian Society of Anesthesiology (SBA) and Brazilian Association of Allergy and Immunology (ASBAI) - Part II: etiology and diagnosis

This second joint document, written by experts from the Brazilian Association of Allergy and Immunology (ASBAI) and Brazilian Society of Anesthesiology (SBA) concerned with perioperative anaphylaxis, aims to review the pathophysiological reaction mechanisms, triggering agents (in adults and children), and the approach for diagnosis during and after an episode of anaphylaxis. As anaphylaxis assessment is extensive, the identification of medications, antiseptics and other substances used at each setting, the comprehensive data documentation, and the use of standardized nomenclature are key points for obtaining more consistent epidemiological information on perioperative anaphylaxis.

Perioperative approach of allergic patients

Perioperative allergic reactions are rare, yet important complications of anesthesia. Severe, generalized allergic reactions called anaphylaxis are estimated to have a mortality of 3.5-4.8%. Adequate recognition and handling of a severe perioperative anaphylactic reaction result in better outcomes, including less hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and death. The diagnosis of a perioperative allergic reaction can be difficult as the list of possible culprits of a perioperative allergic reaction is extensive. Making an informed guess on the causative agent and avoiding this agent in future anesthesia procedures is undesirable and unsafe. Therefore, to ensure future patient safety, a thorough investigation following a perioperative allergic reaction is mandatory. A collaborate approach by allergists and anesthesiologists is advised. In this article, we discuss the basic approach of the allergic patient and of patients with a suspected allergy to perioperatively administered medication.

An IgG-induced neutrophil activation pathway contributes to human drug-induced anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is a systemic acute hypersensitivity reaction that is considered to depend on allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies and histamine release by mast cells and basophils. Nevertheless, allergen-specific IgG antibodies have been proposed to contribute when the allergen is an abundant circulating large molecule, e.g., after infusions of therapeutic antibodies or dextran. Data from animal models demonstrate a pathway involving platelet-activating factor (PAF) release by monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils activated via their Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs). We hypothesized that such a pathway may also apply to small drugs and could be responsible for non–IgE-mediated anaphylaxis and influence anaphylaxis severity in humans. We prospectively conducted a multicentric study of 86 patients with suspected anaphylaxis to neuromuscular-blocking agents (NMBAs) during general anesthesia and 86 matched controls. We found that concentrations of anti-NMBA IgG and markers of FcγR activation, PAF release, and neutrophil activation correlated with anaphylaxis severity. Neutrophils underwent degranulation and NETosis early after anaphylaxis onset, and plasma-purified anti-NMBA IgG triggered neutrophil activation ex vivo in the presence of NMBA. Neutrophil activation could also be observed in patients lacking evidence of classical IgE-dependent anaphylaxis. This study supports the existence of an IgG-neutrophil pathway in human NMBA-induced anaphylaxis, which may aggravate anaphylaxis in combination with the IgE pathway or underlie anaphylaxis in the absence of specific IgE. These results reconcile clinical and experimental data on the role of antibody classes in anaphylaxis and could inform diagnostic approaches to NMBA-induced acute hypersensitivity reactions.

Comparative epidemiology of suspected perioperative hypersensitivity reactions

Suspected perioperative hypersensitivity reactions are rare but contribute significantly to the morbidity and mortality of surgical procedures. Recent publications have highlighted the differences between countries concerning the respective risk of different drugs, and changes in patterns of causal agents and the emergence of new allergens. This review summarises recent information on the epidemiology of perioperative hypersensitivity reactions, with specific consideration of differences between geographic areas for the most frequently involved offending agents.

Six years without pholcodine; Norwegians are significantly less IgE-sensitized and clinically more tolerant to neuromuscular blocking agents

BACKGROUND

As a strong inducer of IgE antibodies to substituted ammonium ion epitopes (QAI), pholcodine (PHO) is a postulated cause of allergic anaphylaxis to neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs). Three years after withdrawal of PHO in Norway, a significant reduction in IgE sensitization and anaphylaxis reporting was seen.

OBJECTIVE

Six-year follow-up study on the effects of PHO withdrawal on IgE sensitization and anaphylaxis reporting.

METHODS

From 650 acute consecutive reports (2005-2013) to the Norwegian Network for Anaphylaxis under Anaesthesia (NARA), total number of reports on suspected anaphylactic reactions, number of reactions where NMBAs were administered, number of reactions where serum IgE antibodies (≥0.35 kU_A /l) to suxamethonium (SUX) and PHO were present at time of reaction and anaphylaxis severity grades were retrieved. In addition, NMBA sales and prevalence of IgE sensitization to PHO and SUX among 'allergics' were monitored.

RESULTS

From baseline period P0 (PHO on the market) through the first (P1) and second (P2), three-year periods after withdrawal, significant falls in total reports (P < 0.001) and reports with IgE antibodies to PHO (P = 0.008) and SUX (P = 0.001) at time of reaction were found. Total NMBA sales in P2 were 83% of P0, and SUX and rocuronium (ROC) together made up 86% of sales throughout the study. Five NMBA-related anaphylactic deaths occurred during P0 and P1 and, however, none during P2. Prevalence of IgE sensitization to SUX in 'allergics' fell to 0% at 4 and 5 years after withdrawal.

CONCLUSIONS

Six years after PHO withdrawal, the Norwegian population has become significantly less IgE-sensitized and clinically more tolerant to NMBAs.

Codeine versus placebo for chronic cough in children

BACKGROUND

Cough in children is a commonly experienced symptom that is associated with increased health service utilisation and burden to parents. The presence of chronic (equal to or more than four weeks) cough in children may indicate a serious underlying condition such as inhaled foreign body or bronchiectasis. Codeine (and derivative)-based medications are sometimes used to treat cough due to their antitussive properties. However, there are inherent risks associated with the use of these medications such as respiratory drive suppression, anaesthetic-induced anaphylaxis, and addiction. Metabolic response and dosage variability place children at increased risk of experiencing such side effects. A systematic review evaluating the quality of the available literature would be useful to inform management practices.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of codeine (and derivatives) in the treatment of chronic cough in children.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Airways Group Register of Trials, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE (1946 to 8 June 2016), EMBASE (1974 to 8 June 2016), the online trials registries of the World Health Organization and ClinicalTrials.gov, and the bibliographic references of publications. We imposed no language restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We considered studies eligible for analysis when: the participant population included children aged less than 18 years with chronic cough (duration equal to or more than four weeks at the time of intervention); and the study design evaluated codeine or codeine-based derivatives against placebo through a randomised controlled trial.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently screened the search results to determine eligibility against a standardised criteria, and we had a pre-planned method for analysis.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified a total of 556 records, of which 486 records were excluded on the basis of title and abstract. We retrieved the remaining 70 references in full to determine eligibility. No studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria of this review, and thus we found no evidence to support or oppose the use of codeine or derivatives as antitussive agents for chronic cough in children.While chronic cough is not the same as acute cough, systematic reviews on the use of codeine efficacy for acute cough in children conclude an overall lack of evidence to support or oppose the use of over-the-counter cough and cold medications containing codeine (or derivatives) for treatment of acute cough in children. The lack of sufficient evidence to support the use of these medications has been consistently reaffirmed by medical experts in international chronic cough guidelines and by governing medical and pharmaceutical authorities in the USA, Europe, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. Due to the lack of sufficient evidence to support efficacy, and the known risks associated with use - in particular the increased risks for children - these medications are now not recommended for children less than 12 years of age and children between 12 to 18 years with respiratory conditions.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This review has highlighted the absence of any randomised controlled trials evaluating codeine-based medications in the treatment of childhood chronic cough. Given the potential adverse events of respiratory suppression and opioid toxicity, national therapeutic regulatory authorities recommend the contraindication of access to codeine in children less than 12 years of age. We suggest that clinical practice adhere to clinical practice guidelines and thus refrain from using codeine or its derivatives to treat cough in children. Aetiological-based management practices continue to be advocated for children with chronic cough.

Perioperative anaphylaxis

Perioperative anaphylaxis is a life-threatening condition with an estimated prevalence of 1:3,500 to 1:20,000 procedures and a mortality rate of up to 9 %. Clinical presentation involves signs such as skin rash, urticaria, angioedema, bronchospasm, tachycardia, bradycardia, and hypotension. Prompt recognition and treatment is of utmost importance to the patient's prognosis, since clinical deterioration can develop rapidly. Epinephrine is the main treatment drug, and its use should not be postponed, since delayed administration is associated with increased mortality. Elevated levels of serum tryptase help to confirm the diagnosis. The main agents involved in IgE-mediated perioperative anaphylaxis are neuromuscular blocking agents, latex, antibiotics, hypnotics, opioids, and colloids. Specific investigation should be conducted 4 to 6 weeks after the reaction and relies on skin tests, serum-specific IgE, and challenge procedures. This review aims to discuss the main aspects of perioperative anaphylaxis: risk factors, diagnosis, treatment, culprit agents, specific investigation, and preventive measures.

Perioperative allergic reactions: experience in a Flemish referral centre

BACKGROUND

The incidence of perioperative anaphylactic reactions is overall estimated to be 1 per 10,000-20,000 anaesthetic procedures. We performed a retrospective analysis of patients referred to a University Allergy Centre in Belgium with the suspicion of an allergic reaction during or shortly after general anaesthesia.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to assess the causes of perioperative allergic reactions, to evaluate cross-reactivity among neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBA) and to analyze the diagnostic relevance of tryptase levels in the discrimination between IgE and non-IgE-mediated reactions.

METHODS

A total of 119 patients, referred from 2007 to 2011 were included. The diagnostic protocol consisted in case history, serum tryptase measurements, immunoassays and skin tests.

RESULTS

A diagnosis of IgE-mediated reaction was established in 76 cases (63.9%). The most common agents were NMBA (61.8%), antibiotics (14.5%), latex (9.2%) and chlorhexidine (5.2%). Rocuronium was the most frequently causative NMBA (48.9%). Vecuronium cross-reactivity was established by skin testing in 47.6% of cases. Cisatracurium was the NMBA most frequently tolerated (cross-reaction in 13.9%). In 23.4% of NMBA allergic patients, the reaction occurred on the first exposure. Most IgE-mediated reactions occurred during the induction phase (72.4%). Latex-induced reactions occurred mainly during maintenance and recovery phases (71.4%; p<0.02). Mean tryptase values were significantly higher in patients with IgE-mediated reactions (p=0.0001), than in those with no identified cause.

CONCLUSIONS

NMBA, antibiotics, latex and chlorhexidine were the main culprits of IgE-mediated perioperative reactions. Uncertainties remain concerning the specificity and sensitivity of skin testing. Tryptase assays can be useful in the discrimination of IgE and non-IgE-mediated reactions.