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Zipple MN, Archie EA, Tung J, Mututua RS, Warutere JK, Siodi IL, Altmann J, Alberts SC. Five Decades of Data Yield No Support for Adaptive Biasing of Offspring Sex Ratio in Wild Baboons ( Papio cynocephalus). Am Nat 2023; 202:383-398. [PMID: 37792922 PMCID: PMC10998069 DOI: 10.1086/725886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
AbstractOver the past 50 years, a wealth of testable, often conflicting hypotheses have been generated about the evolution of offspring sex ratio manipulation by mothers. Several of these hypotheses have received support in studies of invertebrates and some vertebrate taxa. However, their success in explaining sex ratios in mammalian taxa-especially in primates-has been mixed. Here, we assess the predictions of four different hypotheses about the evolution of biased offspring sex ratios in the baboons of the Amboseli basin in Kenya: the Trivers-Willard, female rank enhancement, local resource competition, and local resource enhancement hypotheses. Using the largest sample size ever analyzed in a primate population (n = 1,372 offspring), we test the predictions of each hypothesis. Overall, we find no support for adaptive biasing of sex ratios. Offspring sex is not consistently related to maternal dominance rank or biased toward the dispersing sex, nor is it predicted by group size, population growth rates, or their interaction with maternal rank. Because our sample size confers power to detect even subtle biases in sex ratio, including modulation by environmental heterogeneity, these results suggest that adaptive biasing of offspring sex does not occur in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Zipple
- Laboratory for Animal Social Evolution and Recognition, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University
| | | | - Jenny Tung
- Dept of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University
- Department of Biology, Duke University
| | | | | | | | - Jeanne Altmann
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University
| | - Susan C Alberts
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University
- Department of Biology, Duke University
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Berger V, Reichert S, Lahdenperä M, Jackson J, Htut W, Lummaa V. The elephant in the family: Costs and benefits of elder siblings on younger offspring life-history trajectory in a matrilineal mammal. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:2663-2677. [PMID: 34545574 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many mammals grow up with siblings, and interactions between them can influence offspring phenotype and fitness. Among these interactions, sibling competition between different-age offspring should lead to reproductive and survival costs on the younger sibling, while sibling cooperation should improve younger sibling's reproductive potential and survival. However, little is known about the consequences of sibling effects on younger offspring life-history trajectory, especially in long-lived mammals. We take advantage of a large, multigenerational demographic dataset from semi-captive Asian elephants to investigate how the presence and sex of elder siblings influence the sex, survival until 5 years old, body condition, reproductive success (i.e. age at first reproduction and lifetime reproductive success) and long-term survival of subsequent offspring. We find that elder siblings have heterogeneous effects on subsequent offspring life-history traits depending on their presence, their sex and the sex of the subsequent offspring (named focal calf). Overall, the presence of an elder sibling (either sex) strongly increased focal calf long-term survival (either sex) compared to sibling absence. However, elder sisters had higher impact on the focal sibling than elder brothers. Focal females born after a female display higher long-term survival, and decreased age at first reproduction when raised together with an elder sister rather than a brother. Focal males born after a female rather than a male showed lower survival but higher body weight when both were raised together. We did not detect any sibling effects on the sex of the focal calf sex, survival until 5 years old and lifetime reproductive success. Our results highlight the general complexity of sibling effects, but broadly that elder siblings can influence the life-history trajectory of subsequent offspring. We also stress the importance of considering all life stages when evaluating sibling effects on life trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vérane Berger
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Sophie Reichert
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - John Jackson
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Barra T, Viblanc VA, Saraux C, Murie JO, Dobson FS. Parental investment in the Columbian ground squirrel: empirical tests of sex allocation models. Ecology 2021; 102:e03479. [PMID: 34270793 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Parental allocation of resources into male or female offspring and differences in the balance of offspring sexes in natural populations are central research topics in evolutionary ecology. Fisher (Fisher, R. A. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK) identified frequency-dependent selection as the mechanism responsible for an equal investment in the sexes of offspring at the end of parental care. Three main theories have been proposed for explaining departures from Fisherian sex ratios in light of variation in environmental (social) and individual (maternal condition) characteristics. The Trivers-Willard model (Trivers, R., and D. Willard. 1973. Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring. Science 179:90-92) of male-biased sex allocation by mothers in the best body condition is based on the competitive ability of male offspring for future access to mates and thus superior reproduction. The local resource competition model is based on competitive interactions in matrilines, as occur in many mammal species, where producing sons reduces future intrasexual competition with daughters. A final model invokes advantages of maintaining matrilines for philopatric females, despite any increased competition among females. We used 29 yr of pedigree and demographic data to evaluate these hypotheses in the Colombian ground squirrel (Urocitellus columbianus), a semisocial species characterized by strong female philopatry. Overall, male offspring were heavier than female offspring at birth and at weaning, suggesting a higher production cost. With more local kin present, mothers in the best condition biased their offspring sex ratio in favor of males, and mothers in poor condition biased offspring sex ratio in favor of females. Without co-breeding close kin, the pattern was reversed, with mothers in the best condition producing more daughters, and mothers in poor condition producing more sons. Our results do not provide strong support for any of the single-factor models of allocation to the sexes of offspring, but rather suggest combined influences of relative maternal condition and matriline dominance on offspring sex ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaut Barra
- Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Vincent A Viblanc
- Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Claire Saraux
- Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Jan O Murie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - F Stephen Dobson
- Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, 67000, France.,Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, 311 Funchess Hall, Auburn, Alabama, 36849, USA
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Toni P, Forsyth DM, Festa-Bianchet M. Determinants of offspring sex in kangaroos: a test of multiple hypotheses. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
When the fitness costs and benefits of sons and daughters differ, offspring sex ratio manipulation could be an important reproductive tactic. We explored the effects of environment and maternal caring ability on offspring sex to test four adaptive sex ratio modification hypotheses: the extrinsic modification hypothesis (EMH), carrying capacity hypothesis (CCH), Trivers-Willard hypothesis (TWH), and cost-of-reproduction hypothesis (CRH). The EMH and CCH propose that environmental conditions shape offspring sex ratios, directly or in interaction with maternal condition. The TWH and CRH predict a positive relationship between maternal condition and production of the costlier sex. The TWH predicts that mothers with superior caring ability should produce more of the sex that can provide the greatest fitness returns from additional maternal allocation, and the CRH proposes that females with limited caring ability should reduce fitness costs by producing the cheaper sex. Repeated measures on 83 known-age eastern gray kangaroos, polygynous marsupials with strong sexual dimorphism, revealed that offspring sex ratio was independent of per capita forage, supporting neither the EMH nor CCH, but was dependent on maternal mass, consistent with the TWH and CCH. Our results, however, cannot clearly identify the ultimate cause of the relationship between maternal mass and greater production of sons. One of the three assumptions of the TWH could not be verified, and mothers of sons suffered only marginal additional fitness costs. Sex ratios in higher vertebrates are likely not solely explained by factors dependent on maternal control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Toni
- Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boulevard de l’Université, J1K2R1 Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - David M Forsyth
- Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW, Australia
| | - Marco Festa-Bianchet
- Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boulevard de l’Université, J1K2R1 Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Abstract
Aging, or senescence, is a progressive deterioration of physiological function with age. It leads to age-related declines in reproduction (reproductive senescence) and survival (actuarial senescence) in most organisms. However, senescence patterns can be highly variable across species, populations, and individuals, and the reasons for such variations remain poorly understood. Evolutionary theories predict that increases in reproductive effort in early life should be associated with accelerated senescence, but empirical tests have yielded mixed results. Although in sexually size-dimorphic species offspring of the larger sex (typically males) commonly require more parental resources, these sex differences are not currently incorporated into evolutionary theories of aging. Here, we show that female reproductive senescence varies with both the number and sex ratio of offspring weaned during early life, using data from a long-term study of bighorn sheep. For a given number of offspring, females that weaned more sons than daughters when aged between 2 and 7 y experienced faster senescence in offspring survival in old age. By contrast, analyses of actuarial senescence showed no cost of early-life reproduction. Our results unite two important topics in evolutionary biology: life history and sex allocation. Offspring sex ratio may help explain among-individual variation in senescence rates in other species, including humans.
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Van de Walle J, Zedrosser A, Swenson JE, Pelletier F. Trade-off between offspring mass and number: the lightest offspring bear the costs. Biol Lett 2020. [PMCID: PMC7058944 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Life-history theory predicts a trade-off between offspring size and number. However, the role of intra-litter phenotypic variation in shaping this trade-off is often disregarded. We compared the strength of the relationship between litter size and mass from the perspective of the lightest and the heaviest yearling offspring in 110 brown bear litters in Sweden. We showed that the mass of the lightest yearlings decreased with increasing litter size, but that the mass of the heaviest yearling remained stable, regardless of litter size. Consistent with a conservative reproductive strategy, our results suggest that mothers maintained a stable investment in a fraction of the litter, while transferring the costs of larger litter size to the remaining offspring. Ignoring intra-litter phenotypic variation may obscure our ability to detect a trade-off between offspring size and number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanie Van de Walle
- Département de biologie and Centre for Northern Studies, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Andreas Zedrosser
- Department of Natural Sciences and Environmental Health, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3800 Bø i Telemark, Norway
- Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1180 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jon E. Swenson
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de biologie and Centre for Northern Studies, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1K 2R1
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Festa‐Bianchet M, Côté SD, Hamel S, Pelletier F. Long‐term studies of bighorn sheep and mountain goats reveal fitness costs of reproduction. J Anim Ecol 2019; 88:1118-1133. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Festa‐Bianchet
- Département de biologie Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke Québec Canada
- Centre d'études nordiques Québec City Québec Canada
| | - Steeve D. Côté
- Centre d'études nordiques Québec City Québec Canada
- Département de biologie Université Laval Sainte‐Foy Québec Canada
| | - Sandra Hamel
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries, and Economics UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de biologie Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke Québec Canada
- Centre d'études nordiques Québec City Québec Canada
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Merkling T, Hatch SA, Leclaire S, Danchin E, Blanchard P. Offspring sex-ratio and environmental conditions in a seabird with sex-specific rearing costs: a long-term experimental approach. Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-019-09983-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Douhard M, Festa-Bianchet M, Hamel S, Nussey DH, Côté SD, Pemberton JM, Pelletier F. Maternal longevity and offspring sex in wild ungulates. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20181968. [PMID: 30963926 PMCID: PMC6408606 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In species with sexual size dimorphism, the offspring of the larger sex usually have greater energy requirements and may lead to greater fitness costs for parents. The effects of offspring sex on maternal longevity, however, have only been tested in humans. Human studies produced mixed results and considerable debate mainly owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the effects of sexual dimorphism from sociocultural factors. To advance this debate, we examined how the relative number of sons influenced maternal longevity in four species of free-living ungulates (Soay sheep Ovis aries; bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis; red deer, Cervus elaphus; mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus), with high male-biased sexual size dimorphism but without complicating sociocultural variables. We found no evidence for a higher cumulative cost of sons than of daughters on maternal longevity. For a given number of offspring, most females with many sons in all four populations lived longer than females with few sons. The higher cost of sons over daughters on maternal lifespan reported by some human studies may be the exception rather than the rule in long-lived iteroparous species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Douhard
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, CanadaJ1K 2R1
| | - Marco Festa-Bianchet
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, CanadaJ1K 2R1
| | - Sandra Hamel
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Daniel H. Nussey
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Steeve D. Côté
- Département de Biologie et Centre d’études Nordiques, Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, CanadaG1V 0A6
| | | | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, CanadaJ1K 2R1
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Andrews KR, Adams JR, Cassirer EF, Plowright RK, Gardner C, Dwire M, Hohenlohe PA, Waits LP. A bioinformatic pipeline for identifying informative SNP panels for parentage assignment from RADseq data. Mol Ecol Resour 2018; 18:1263-1281. [PMID: 29870119 PMCID: PMC6207459 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies is dramatically increasing the use of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across the field of genetics, but most parentage studies of wild populations still rely on microsatellites. We developed a bioinformatic pipeline for identifying SNP panels that are informative for parentage analysis from restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) data. This pipeline includes options for analysis with or without a reference genome, and provides methods to maximize genotyping accuracy and select sets of unlinked loci that have high statistical power. We test this pipeline on small populations of Mexican gray wolf and bighorn sheep, for which parentage analyses are expected to be challenging due to low genetic diversity and the presence of many closely related individuals. We compare the results of parentage analysis across SNP panels generated with or without the use of a reference genome, and between SNPs and microsatellites. For Mexican gray wolf, we conducted parentage analyses for 30 pups from a single cohort where samples were available from 64% of possible mothers and 53% of possible fathers, and the accuracy of parentage assignments could be estimated because true identities of parents were known a priori based on field data. For bighorn sheep, we conducted maternity analyses for 39 lambs from five cohorts where 77% of possible mothers were sampled, but true identities of parents were unknown. Analyses with and without a reference genome produced SNP panels with ≥95% parentage assignment accuracy for Mexican gray wolf, outperforming microsatellites at 78% accuracy. Maternity assignments were completely consistent across all SNP panels for the bighorn sheep, and were 74.4% consistent with assignments from microsatellites. Accuracy and consistency of parentage analysis were not reduced when using as few as 284 SNPs for Mexican gray wolf and 142 SNPs for bighorn sheep, indicating our pipeline can be used to develop SNP genotyping assays for parentage analysis with relatively small numbers of loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly R. Andrews
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 1136, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
- Current address: Genetics and Genomics Group, University of Washington JISAO and NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Lab, Seattle, WA 98115, USA
| | - Jennifer R. Adams
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 1136, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - E. Frances Cassirer
- Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 3316 16th Street, Lewiston, ID 83501, USA
| | - Raina K. Plowright
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, 109 Lewis Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Colby Gardner
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2105 Osuna Road NE, Albuquerque, NM 87113, USA
| | - Maggie Dwire
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2105 Osuna Road NE, Albuquerque, NM 87113, USA
| | - Paul A. Hohenlohe
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Lisette P. Waits
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 1136, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
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Ortega MT, Foote DJ, Nees N, Erdmann JC, Bangs CD, Rosenfeld CS. Karyotype analysis and sex determination in Australian Brush-turkeys (Alectura lathami). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0185014. [PMID: 28910392 PMCID: PMC5599057 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual differentiation across taxa may be due to genetic sex determination (GSD) and/or temperature sex determination (TSD). In many mammals, males are heterogametic (XY); whereas females are homogametic (XX). In most birds, the opposite is the case with females being heterogametic (ZW) and males the homogametic sex (ZZ). Many reptile species lack sex chromosomes, and instead, sexual differentiation is influenced by temperature with specific temperatures promoting males or females varying across species possessing this form of sexual differentiation, although TSD has recently been shown to override GSD in Australian central beaded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). There has been speculation that Australian Brush-turkeys (Alectura lathami) exhibit TSD alone and/or in combination with GSD. Thus, we sought to determine if this species possesses sex chromosomes. Blood was collected from one sexually mature female and two sexually mature males residing at Sylvan Heights Bird Park (SHBP) and shipped for karyotype analysis. Karyotype analysis revealed that contrary to speculation, Australian Brush-turkeys possess the classic avian ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes. It remains a possibility that a biased primary sex ratio of Australian Brush-turkeys might be influenced by maternal condition prior to ovulation that result in her laying predominantly Z- or W-bearing eggs and/or sex-biased mortality due to higher sensitivity of one sex in environmental conditions. A better understanding of how maternal and extrinsic factors might differentially modulate ovulation of Z- or W-bearing eggs and hatching of developing chicks possessing ZW or ZZ sex chromosomes could be essential in conservation strategies used to save endangered members of Megapodiidae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison T. Ortega
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Dustin J. Foote
- Sylvan Heights Bird Park, Scotland Neck, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Nicholas Nees
- Sylvan Heights Bird Park, Scotland Neck, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jason C. Erdmann
- Cytogenetics Laboratory, Stanford Health Care, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Charles D. Bangs
- Cytogenetics Laboratory, Stanford Health Care, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Cheryl S. Rosenfeld
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Thompson Center for Autism and Neurobehavioral Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Douhard M. Offspring sex ratio in mammals and the Trivers-Willard hypothesis: In pursuit of unambiguous evidence. Bioessays 2017; 39. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.201700043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Douhard
- Département de Biologie; Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Québec Canada
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