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Shi C, Chen S, Liu H, Pan R, Li S, Wang Y, Wu X, Li J, Li X, Xing C, Liu X, Wang Y, Qu Q, Li G. Evolution of the gene regulatory network of body axis by enhancer hijacking in amphioxus. eLife 2024; 13:e89615. [PMID: 38231024 DOI: 10.7554/elife.89615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
A central goal of evolutionary developmental biology is to decipher the evolutionary pattern of gene regulatory networks (GRNs) that control embryonic development, and the mechanism underlying GRNs evolution. The Nodal signaling that governs the body axes of deuterostomes exhibits a conserved GRN orchestrated principally by Nodal, Gdf1/3, and Lefty. Here we show that this GRN has been rewired in cephalochordate amphioxus. We found that while the amphioxus Gdf1/3 ortholog exhibited nearly no embryonic expression, its duplicate Gdf1/3-like, linked to Lefty, was zygotically expressed in a similar pattern as Lefty. Consistent with this, while Gdf1/3-like mutants showed defects in axial development, Gdf1/3 mutants did not. Further transgenic analyses showed that the intergenic region between Gdf1/3-like and Lefty could drive reporter gene expression as that of the two genes. These results indicated that Gdf1/3-like has taken over the axial development role of Gdf1/3 in amphioxus, possibly through hijacking Lefty enhancers. We finally demonstrated that, to compensate for the loss of maternal Gdf1/3 expression, Nodal has become an indispensable maternal factor in amphioxus and its maternal mutants caused axial defects as Gdf1/3-like mutants. We therefore demonstrated a case that the evolution of GRNs could be triggered by enhancer hijacking events. This pivotal event has allowed the emergence of a new GRN in extant amphioxus, presumably through a stepwise process. In addition, the co-expression of Gdf1/3-like and Lefty achieved by a shared regulatory region may have provided robustness during body axis formation, which provides a selection-based hypothesis for the phenomena called developmental system drift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenggang Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shuang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Huimin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Rongrong Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shiqi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yanhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaotong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xuewen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Chaofan Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yiquan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Qingming Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Guang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
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2
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Tominaga H, Nishitsuji K, Satoh N. A single-cell RNA-seq analysis of early larval cell-types of the starfish, Patiria pectinifera: Insights into evolution of the chordate body plan. Dev Biol 2023; 496:52-62. [PMID: 36717049 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2023.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Ambulacrarians (echinoderms and hemichordates) are a sister group to chordates; thus, their larval cell-types may provide clues about evolution of chordate body plans. Although most genic information accumulated to date pertains to sea urchin embryogenesis, starfish embryogenesis represents a more ancestral mode than that of sea urchins. We performed single-cell RNA-seq analysis of cell-types from gastrulae and bipinnarial larvae of the starfish, Patiria pectinifera, and categorized them into 22 clusters, each of which is composed of cells with specific, shared profiles of development-relevant gene expression. Oral and aboral ectoderm, apical plate, hindgut or archenteron, midgut or intestine, pharynx, endomesoderm, stomodeum, and mesenchyme of the gastrulae, and neurons, ciliary bands, enterocoel and muscle of larvae were characterized by expression profiles of at least two relevant transcription factor genes and signaling molecular genes. Expression of Hox2, Hox7, Hox9/10, and Hox11/13b was detected in cells of clusters that form the larval enterocoel. By comparing homologous gene expression profiles in chordate embryos, we discuss and propose how the chordate body plan evolved from a deuterostome ancestor, from which the echinoderm body plan also evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Tominaga
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Koki Nishitsuji
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Satoh
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan.
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Machacova S, Kozmik Z, Kozmikova I. Identification of Nodal-dependent enhancer of amphioxus Chordin sufficient to drive gene expression into the chordate dorsal organizer. Dev Genes Evol 2022; 232:137-145. [PMID: 36372862 DOI: 10.1007/s00427-022-00698-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The core molecular mechanisms of dorsal organizer formation during gastrulation are highly conserved within the chordate lineage. One of the key characteristics is that Nodal signaling is required for the organizer-specific gene expression. This feature appears to be ancestral, as evidenced by the presence in the most basally divergent chordate amphioxus. To provide a better understanding of the evolution of organizer-specific gene regulation in chordates, we analyzed the cis-regulatory sequence of amphioxus Chordin in the context of the vertebrate embryo. First, we generated stable zebrafish transgenic lines, and by using light-sheet fluorescent microscopy, characterized in detail the expression pattern of GFP driven by the cis-regulatory sequences of amphioxus Chordin. Next, we performed a 5'deletion analysis and identified an enhancer sufficient to drive the expression of the reporter gene into a chordate dorsal organizer. Finally, we found that the identified enhancer element strongly depends on Nodal signaling, which is consistent with the well-established role of this pathway in the regulation of the expression of dorsal organizer-specific genes across chordates. The enhancer identified in our study may represent a suitable simple system to study the interplay of the evolutionarily conserved regulatory mechanisms operating during early chordate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Machacova
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 4, Videnska, 1083, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Kozmik
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 4, Videnska, 1083, Czech Republic
| | - Iryna Kozmikova
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 4, Videnska, 1083, Czech Republic.
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4
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Carvalho JE, Lahaye F, Yong LW, Croce JC, Escrivá H, Yu JK, Schubert M. An Updated Staging System for Cephalochordate Development: One Table Suits Them All. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:668006. [PMID: 34095136 PMCID: PMC8174843 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.668006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chordates are divided into three subphyla: Vertebrata, Tunicata, and Cephalochordata. Phylogenetically, the Cephalochordata, more commonly known as lancelets or amphioxus, constitute the sister group of Vertebrata and Tunicata. Lancelets are small, benthic, marine filter feeders, and their roughly three dozen described species are divided into three genera: Branchiostoma, Epigonichthys, and Asymmetron. Due to their phylogenetic position and their stereotypical chordate morphology and genome architecture, lancelets are key models for understanding the evolutionary history of chordates. Lancelets have thus been studied by generations of scientists, with the first descriptions of adult anatomy and developmental morphology dating back to the 19th century. Today, several different lancelet species are used as laboratory models, predominantly for developmental, molecular and genomic studies. Surprisingly, however, a universal staging system and an unambiguous nomenclature for developing lancelets have not yet been adopted by the scientific community. In this work, we characterized the development of the European lancelet (Branchiostoma lanceolatum) using confocal microscopy and compiled a streamlined developmental staging system, from fertilization through larval life, including an unambiguous stage nomenclature. By tracing growth curves of the European lancelet reared at different temperatures, we were able to show that our staging system permitted an easy conversion of any developmental time into a specific stage name. Furthermore, comparisons of embryos and larvae from the European lancelet (B. lanceolatum), the Florida lancelet (Branchiostoma floridae), two Asian lancelets (Branchiostoma belcheri and Branchiostoma japonicum), and the Bahamas lancelet (Asymmetron lucayanum) demonstrated that our staging system could readily be applied to other lancelet species. Although the detailed staging description was carried out on developing B. lanceolatum, the comparisons with other lancelet species thus strongly suggested that both staging and nomenclature are applicable to all extant lancelets. We conclude that this description of embryonic and larval development will be of great use for the scientific community and that it should be adopted as the new standard for defining and naming developing lancelets. More generally, we anticipate that this work will facilitate future studies comparing representatives from different chordate lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- João E Carvalho
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer, Institut de la Mer de Villefranche, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - François Lahaye
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer, Institut de la Mer de Villefranche, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Luok Wen Yong
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jenifer C Croce
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer, Institut de la Mer de Villefranche, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Hector Escrivá
- Biologie Intégrative des Organismes Marins, Observatoire Océanologique, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Banyuls-sur-Mer, France
| | - Jr-Kai Yu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - Michael Schubert
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer, Institut de la Mer de Villefranche, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
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Lin CY, Lu MYJ, Yue JX, Li KL, Le Pétillon Y, Yong LW, Chen YH, Tsai FY, Lyu YF, Chen CY, Hwang SPL, Su YH, Yu JK. Molecular asymmetry in the cephalochordate embryo revealed by single-blastomere transcriptome profiling. PLoS Genet 2021; 16:e1009294. [PMID: 33382716 PMCID: PMC7806126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies in various animals have shown that asymmetrically localized maternal transcripts play important roles in axial patterning and cell fate specification in early embryos. However, comprehensive analyses of the maternal transcriptomes with spatial information are scarce and limited to a handful of model organisms. In cephalochordates (amphioxus), an early branching chordate group, maternal transcripts of germline determinants form a compact granule that is inherited by a single blastomere during cleavage stages. Further blastomere separation experiments suggest that other transcripts associated with the granule are likely responsible for organizing the posterior structure in amphioxus; however, the identities of these determinants remain unknown. In this study, we used high-throughput RNA sequencing of separated blastomeres to examine asymmetrically localized transcripts in two-cell and eight-cell stage embryos of the amphioxus Branchiostoma floridae. We identified 111 and 391 differentially enriched transcripts at the 2-cell stage and the 8-cell stage, respectively, and used in situ hybridization to validate the spatial distribution patterns for a subset of these transcripts. The identified transcripts could be categorized into two major groups: (1) vegetal tier/germ granule-enriched and (2) animal tier/anterior-enriched transcripts. Using zebrafish as a surrogate model system, we showed that overexpression of one animal tier/anterior-localized amphioxus transcript, zfp665, causes a dorsalization/anteriorization phenotype in zebrafish embryos by downregulating the expression of the ventral gene, eve1, suggesting a potential function of zfp665 in early axial patterning. Our results provide a global transcriptomic blueprint for early-stage amphioxus embryos. This dataset represents a rich platform to guide future characterization of molecular players in early amphioxus development and to elucidate conservation and divergence of developmental programs during chordate evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che-Yi Lin
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Yeh Jade Lu
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Xing Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kun-Lung Li
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yann Le Pétillon
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Luok Wen Yong
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hua Chen
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Yu Tsai
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Feng Lyu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yi Chen
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Ping L. Hwang
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsien Su
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (Y-HS); (J-KY)
| | - Jr-Kai Yu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Yilan, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (Y-HS); (J-KY)
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6
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Yasuoka Y. Enhancer evolution in chordates: Lessons from functional analyses of cephalochordate cis‐regulatory modules. Dev Growth Differ 2020; 62:279-300. [DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuuri Yasuoka
- Laboratory for Comprehensive Genomic Analysis RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences Tsurumi‐ku Japan
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7
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Kozmikova I, Kozmik Z. Wnt/β-catenin signaling is an evolutionarily conserved determinant of chordate dorsal organizer. eLife 2020; 9:56817. [PMID: 32452768 PMCID: PMC7292647 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Deciphering the mechanisms of axis formation in amphioxus is a key step to understanding the evolution of chordate body plan. The current view is that Nodal signaling is the only factor promoting the dorsal axis specification in the amphioxus, whereas Wnt/β-catenin signaling plays no role in this process. Here, we re-examined the role of Wnt/βcatenin signaling in the dorsal/ventral patterning of amphioxus embryo. We demonstrated that the spatial activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is located in presumptive dorsal cells from cleavage to gastrula stage, and provided functional evidence that Wnt/β-catenin signaling is necessary for the specification of dorsal cell fate in a stage-dependent manner. Microinjection of Wnt8 and Wnt11 mRNA induced ectopic dorsal axis in neurulae and larvae. Finally, we demonstrated that Nodal and Wnt/β-catenin signaling cooperate to promote the dorsal-specific gene expression in amphioxus gastrula. Our study reveals high evolutionary conservation of dorsal organizer formation in the chordate lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Kozmikova
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Kozmik
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
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8
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Zhang H, Chen S, Shang C, Wu X, Wang Y, Li G. Interplay between Lefty and Nodal signaling is essential for the organizer and axial formation in amphioxus embryos. Dev Biol 2019; 456:63-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Abstract
Neural induction is the process through which pluripotent cells are committed to a neural fate. This first step of Central Nervous System formation is triggered by the "Spemann organizer" in amphibians and by homologous embryonic regions in other vertebrates. Studies in classical vertebrate models have produced contrasting views about the molecular nature of neural inducers and no unifying scheme could be drawn. Moreover, how this process evolved in the chordate lineage remains an unresolved issue. In this work, by using graft and micromanipulation experiments, we definitively establish that the dorsal blastopore lip of the cephalochordate amphioxus is homologous to the vertebrate organizer and is able to trigger the formation of neural tissues in a host embryo. In addition, we demonstrate that Nodal/Activin is the main signal eliciting neural induction in amphioxus, and that it also functions as a bona fide neural inducer in the classical vertebrate model Xenopus. Altogether, our results allow us to propose that Nodal/Activin was a major player of neural induction in the ancestor of chordates. This study further reveals the diversity of neural inducers deployed during chordate evolution and advocates against a universally conserved molecular explanation for this process.
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Igawa T, Nozawa M, Suzuki DG, Reimer JD, Morov AR, Wang Y, Henmi Y, Yasui K. Evolutionary history of the extant amphioxus lineage with shallow-branching diversification. Sci Rep 2017; 7:1157. [PMID: 28442709 PMCID: PMC5430900 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00786-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphioxus or lancelets have been regarded as a key animal in understanding the origin of vertebrates. However, the evolutionary history within this lineage remains unexplored. As the amphioxus lineage has likely been separated from other chordates for a very long time and displays a marked left-right asymmetry, its evolutionary history is potentially helpful in better understanding chordate and vertebrate origins. We studied the phylogenetic relationships within the extant amphioxus lineage based on mitochondrial genomes incorporating new Asymmetron and Epigonichthys populations, and based on previously reported nuclear transcriptomes. The resulting tree patterns are consistent, showing the Asymmetron clade diverging first, followed by the Epigonichthys and Branchiostoma clades splitting. Divergence time estimates based on nuclear transcriptomes with vertebrate calibrations support a shallow diversification of the extant amphioxus lineage in the Tertiary. These estimates fit well with the closure of seaways between oceans by continental drift, ocean currents, and present geographical distributions, and suggest a long cryptic history from the origin of amphioxus to its most recent diversification. Deduced character polarities based on phylogenetic analyses suggest that the common ancestor of the extant amphioxus existed in a tiny epibenthic state with larva-like appearance of extant amphioxus, likely with ciliate epidermis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Igawa
- Amphibian Research Center, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8529, Japan
| | - Masafumi Nozawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minamiosawa, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Daichi G Suzuki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba University, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.,Nobel Institute for Neurophysiology, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - James D Reimer
- Department of Biology, Chemistry & Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
| | - Arseniy R Morov
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan.,Depertment of Zoology and General Biology, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, 18 Kremlyovskaya St., Kazan, 420008, Republic of Tatarstan, Russian Federation
| | - Yiquan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yasuhisa Henmi
- Aitsu Marine Station, Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Kumamoto University, 6061 Aitsu, Kami-Amakusa, Kumamoto, 861-6102, Japan
| | - Kinya Yasui
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan.
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