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Young LA, Munro E, Somanchi P, Bemis A, Smith SM, Shefelbine SJ. Analysis of bone structure in PEROMYSCUS: Effects of burrowing behavior. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2024. [PMID: 38850161 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
We compare the effects of burrowing behavior on appendicular bone structure in two Peromyscus (deer mouse) species. P. polionotus creates complex burrows in their territories, while P. eremicus is a non-burrowing nesting mouse. We examined museum specimens' bones of wild-caught mice of the two species and lab-reared P. polionotus not given the opportunity to burrow. Bones were scanned using micro-computed tomography, and cortical and trabecular bone structural properties were quantified. Wild P. polionotus mice had a larger moment of area in the ulnar and tibial cortical bone compared with their lab-reared counterparts, suggesting developmental adaptation to bending resistance. Wild P. polionotus had a larger normalized second moment of area and cross-sectional area in the tibia compared with P. eremicus. Tibial trabecular analysis showed lower trabecular thickness and spacing in wild P. polionotus than in P. eremicus and femoral analysis showed wild P. polionotus had lower thickness than P. eremicus and lower spacing than lab-reared P. polionotus, suggesting adaptation to high loads from digging. Results lay the groundwork for future exploration of the ontogenetic and evolutionary basis of mechanoadaptation in Peromyscus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey A Young
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Emma Munro
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Priya Somanchi
- Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Abigail Bemis
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Sandra J Shefelbine
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Wu Q, Liu H, Yang Q, Qi J, Xi Y, Tang Q, Wang R, Hu J, Li L. Transcriptome-based comparison reveals key genes regulating allometry growth of forelimb and hindlimb bone in duck embryos. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103317. [PMID: 38160613 PMCID: PMC10792745 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.103317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Allometric growth of the forelimb and hindlimb is a widespread phenomenon observed in vertebrates. As a typical precocial bird, ducks exhibit more advanced development of their hindlimbs compared to their forelimbs, enabling them to walk shortly after hatching. This phenomenon is closely associated with the development of long bones in the embryonic stage. However, the molecular mechanism governing the allometric growth of duck forelimb and hindlimb bones is remains elusive. In this study, we employed phenotypic, histological, and gene expression analyses to investigate developmental differences between the humerus (forelimb bone) and tibia/femur (hindlimb bones) in duck embryos. Our results revealed a gradual increase in weight and length disparity between the tibia and humerus from E12 to E28 (embryo age). At E12, endochondral ossification was observed solely in the tibia but not in the humerus. The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) gradually increased at H12 vs. T12, H20 vs. T20, and H28 vs. T28 stages consistent with phenotypic variations. A total of 38 DEGs were found across all 3 stages. Protein-protein interaction network analysis demonstrated strong interactions among members of HOXD gene family (HOXD3/8/9/10/11/12), HOXB gene family (HOXB8/9), TBX gene family (TBX4/5/20), HOXA11, SHOX2, and MEIS2. Gene expression profiling indicated higher expression levels for all HOXD genes in the humerus compared to tibia while opposite trends were observed for HOXA/HOXB genes with low or no expression detected in the humerus. These findings suggest distinct roles played by different clusters within HOX gene family during skeletal development regulation of duck embryo's forelimbs versus hind limbs. Notably, TBX4 exhibited high expression levels specifically in tibia whereas TBX5 showed similar patterns exclusively within humerus as seen previously across other species' studies. In summary, this study identified key regulatory genes involved in allometric growth of duck forelimb and hindlimb bones during embryonic development. Skeletal development is a complex physiological process, and further research is needed to elucidate the regulatory role of candidate genes in endochondral ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifan Wu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China; Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin, 644000, China
| | - Hehe Liu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Qinglan Yang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Jingjing Qi
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Yang Xi
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Qian Tang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Jiwei Hu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Liang Li
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
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Hamidi K, Matin MM, Pérez MJ, Kilpatrick CW, Darvish J. Postcranial skeleton of Goodwin's brush-tailed mouse (Calomyscus elburzensis Goodwin, 1939) (Rodentia: Calomyscidae): Shape, size, function, and locomotor adaptation. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 339:1059-1101. [PMID: 37698162 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Goodwin's brush-tailed mouse (Calomyscus elburzensis Goodwin, 1939) is a poorly known small rodent that occupies rocky habitats in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, and Syria. Herein, a detailed description of the shape, size, and function of the postcranial skeleton of this species is presented for the first time. Trapping was carried out in eastern Iran between the years 2013 and 2015. Skeletal parts of 24 adult male specimens were removed using the papain digestion protocol, and several postcranial morphological characteristics and measurements were examined. We attempted to achieve a morpho-functional characterization of Goodwin's brush-tailed mouse and to match morphological specializations with previous information on the ecology, behavior, and phylogenetic inferences of this rodent. Goodwin's brush-tailed mouse has extended transverse processes and long zygapophyses in the first five caudal vertebrae along with a good innervation of the caudal vertebrae, which has resulted in a well-developed basal musculature of the tail. It has extended forelimb, long ilium, and short post-acetabular part of the innominate bone, loose hip joint with high degree of lateral movement of the hindlimb, and long distal elements of the hindlimb. These features have resulted in fast terrestrial movements in open microhabitats, including climbing and jumping. Although superficial scratching of the ground is observed, the species is incapable of digging burrows. Evaluation of postcranial morphological characteristics and character states further indicated the basal radiation of the genus Calomyscus among other Muroidea. Findings constitute a source of information for morpho-functional and phylogenetic comparisons between Calomyscidae and other mouse-like muroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kordiyeh Hamidi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Maryam M Matin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- Novel Diagnostics and Therapeutics Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - M Julieta Pérez
- Instituto de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA) y Programa de Conservación de los Murciélagos de Argentina (PCMA), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | | | - Jamshid Darvish
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- Research Group of Rodentology, Institute of Applied Zoology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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Zhang R, Sun X, Pang H, Xue S, Zhang H, Hu Z, Zou M. Research in superior bearing performance of the ostrich tarsometatarsus based on its structural features. RENDICONTI LINCEI. SCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-022-01128-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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5
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Keeffe R, Blackburn DC. Diversity and function of the fused anuran radioulna. J Anat 2022; 241:1026-1038. [PMID: 35962544 PMCID: PMC9482697 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In tetrapods, fusion between elements of the appendicular skeleton is thought to facilitate rapid movements during running, flying, and jumping. Although such fusion is widespread, frogs stand out because adults of all living species exhibit fusion of the zeugopod elements (radius and ulna, tibia and fibula), regardless of jumping ability or locomotor mode. To better understand what drives the maintenance of limb bone fusion in frogs, we use finite element modeling methods to assess the functional consequences of fusion in the anuran radioulna, the forearm bone of frogs that is important to both locomotion and mating behavior (amplexus). Using CT scans of museum specimens, measurement tools, and mesh‐editing software, we evaluated how different degrees of fusion between the radius and ulna affect the von Mises stress and bending resistance of the radioulna in three loading scenarios: landing, amplexus, and long‐axis loading conditions. We find that the semi‐fused state observed in the radioulna exhibits less von Mises stress and more resistance to bending than unfused or completely fused models in all three scenarios. Our results suggest that radioulna morphology is optimized to minimize von Mises stress across different loading regimes while also minimizing volume. We contextualize our findings in an evaluation of the diversity of anuran radioulnae, which reveals unique, permanent pronation of the radioulna in frogs and substantial variation in wall thickness. This work provides new insight into the functional consequences of limb bone fusion in anuran evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Keeffe
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - David C Blackburn
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.,Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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6
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Thornton LH, Dick TJM, Bennett MB, Clemente CJ. Understanding Australia’s unique hopping species: a comparative review of the musculoskeletal system and locomotor biomechanics in Macropodoidea. AUST J ZOOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1071/zo21048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Kangaroos and other macropodoids stand out among mammals for their unusual hopping locomotion and body shape. This review examines the scaling of hind- and forelimb bones, and the primary ankle extensor muscles and tendons. We find that the scaling of the musculoskeletal system is sensitive to the phylogenetic context. Tibia length increases with positive allometry among most macropodoids, but negative allometry in eastern grey kangaroos and isometry in red kangaroos. Femur length decreases with stronger negative allometry in eastern grey and red kangaroos than among other macropodoids. Muscle masses scale with negative allometry in western grey kangaroos and with isometry in red kangaroos, compared to positive allometry in other macropodoids. We further summarise the work on the hopping gait, energetics in macropodoids, and stresses in the musculoskeletal system in an evolutionary context, to determine what trade-offs may limit locomotor performance in macropodoids. When large kangaroos hop, they do not increase oxygen consumption with speed, unlike most mammals, including small hopping species. We conclude that there is not enough information to isolate the biomechanical factors that make large kangaroos so energy efficient. We identify key areas for further research to fill these gaps.
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7
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Pyszko M, Němeček P, Horák O, Páral V, Kotrba R, Hoffman LC, Robovský J. Newly described anatomical opening on forelimb tendon in the artiodactyls and its relation to knee clicks. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4362. [PMID: 35288610 PMCID: PMC8921199 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08303-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand which morphological/anatomical parts may be responsible in artiodactyl ungulates for the clicking sound made when moving, this research focuses on the forelimb tendon apparatus where an undescribed opening in the fibrous cuff (manica flexoria), called hereafter for its shape as an “oval window” in the manica flexoria (OWMF), was detected. This oval window was found in 24 of the 25 species of four families (Camelidae, Giraffidae, Cervidae, and Bovidae) evaluated; the exception being in Bos taurus taurus (Domestic cattle). The length and width of the OWMF enabled correct species discrimination between the majority of species, but remained conservative intraspecifically, as it did not differ between the left and right side of the forelimb, third and fourth digits, or between sexes. When evaluating the shape of OWMF in individual species, and measuring its length and width, 18 out of the 24 species investigated had this window as an oval shape, the remaining 25% of species exhibited more oval-oblong shapes with either proximal or distal asymmetry. The function of the OWMF in the thoracic autopodium of most ruminant even-toed ungulates is not yet fully understood. Its most likely function is to help balance the pressure inside the ligament cuff and reduce the friction of the touching surfaces of the muscle tendons—thus facilitating the movement of the digits when walking. None of the absolute or relative OWMF parameters fit exclusively with the occurrence and distribution of knee-clicks produced by some bovids and cervids during movement, so the mechanism responsible for this sound remains cryptic from the present anatomical perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Pyszko
- Department of Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého třída 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Němeček
- Jiří Orten Grammar School, Jaselská 932, 284 80, Kutná Hora, Czech Republic.
| | - Ondřej Horák
- Department of Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého třída 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Václav Páral
- Department of Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého třída 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Radim Kotrba
- Department of Ethology, Institute of Animal Science, 104 00, Prague 10 - Uhříněves, Czech Republic.,Department of Animal Science and Food Processing, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Praha 6 - Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Louwrens C Hoffman
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa.,Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Digital Agricultural Building, 8115, Office 110, Gatton, 4343, Australia
| | - Jan Robovský
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Liberec Zoo, Lidové sady 425/1, 460 01, Liberec, Czech Republic.
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8
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Huie JM, Summers AP, Kawano SM. SegmentGeometry: A Tool for Measuring Second Moment of Area in 3D Slicer. Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac009. [PMID: 35291672 PMCID: PMC8919404 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Second moment of area is a measure of how well the cross-section of a beam will resist bending because of its shape. Many have used second moment of area to investigate the mechanical adaptations of biological structures from stingray jaws to animal limb bones. In this context it is important to acknowledge the assumptions of beam theory, in which second moment of area plays a key role, if reasonable results are desired. For example, to minimize shear the structure should be at least 10 times longer than it is wide and deflection should be minimal. Analyzing the internal geometry of biological structures has never been easier or more accessible given the wide, and growing availability of micro-CT scans. Here, we offer a guide on the care that needs to be taken when interpreting second moment of area, and present open-access, open-source software that can process hundreds if not thousands of structures in a short time frame. SegmentGeometry, an extension for the open-source imaging platform 3D Slicer, iterates slice-by-slice through 3D structures to calculate second moment of area and other cross-sectional properties. We analyzed 2 case studies to demonstrate the power of this tool and to highlight interpretations that can be gleaned from second moment of area. Second moment of area is just one part of the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory and considering the full equation would greatly increase the number and diversity of questions that can be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Huie
- Department of Biological Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Adam P Summers
- Biology and SAFS, Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA
| | - Sandy M Kawano
- Department of Biological Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
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Wagstaffe AY, O'Driscoll AM, Kunz CJ, Rayfield EJ, Janis CM. Divergent locomotor evolution in "giant" kangaroos: Evidence from foot bone bending resistances and microanatomy. J Morphol 2022; 283:313-332. [PMID: 34997777 PMCID: PMC9303454 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The extinct sthenurine (giant, short-faced) kangaroos have been proposed to have a different type of locomotor behavior to extant (macropodine) kangaroos, based both on physical limitations (the size of many exceeds the proposed limit for hopping) and anatomical features (features of the hind limb anatomy suggestive of weight-bearing on one leg at a time). Here, we use micro computerised tomography (micro-CT) scans of the pedal bones of six kangaroos, three sthenurine, and three macropodine, ranging from ~50 to 150 kg, to investigate possible differences in bone resistances to bending and cortical bone distribution that might relate to differences in locomotion. Using second moment of area analysis, we show differences in resistance to bending between the two subfamilies. Distribution of cortical bone shows that sthenurines had less resistant calcaneal tubers, implying a different foot posture during locomotion, and the long foot bones were more resistant to the medial bending stresses. These differences were the most pronounced between Pleistocene monodactyl sthenurines (Sthenurus stirlingi and Procoptodon browneorum) and the two species of Macropus (the extant M. giganteus and the extinct M. cf. M. titan) and support the hypothesis that these derived sthenurines employed bipedal striding. The Miocene sthenurine Hadronomas retains some more macropodine-like features of bone resistance to bending, perhaps reflecting its retention of the fifth pedal digit. The Pleistocene macropodine Protemnodon has a number of unique features, possibly indicative of a type of locomotion unlike the other kangaroos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Y Wagstaffe
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Energy and Environment Institute, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Adrian M O'Driscoll
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Center for Anatomical and Human Studies, Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Callum J Kunz
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Emily J Rayfield
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Christine M Janis
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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10
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Jones B, Martín-Serra A, Rayfield EJ, Janis CM. Distal Humeral Morphology Indicates Locomotory Divergence in Extinct Giant Kangaroos. J MAMM EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-021-09576-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPrevious studies of the morphology of the humerus in kangaroos showed that the shape of the proximal humerus could distinguish between arboreal and terrestrial taxa among living mammals, and that the extinct “giant” kangaroos (members of the extinct subfamily Sthenurinae and the extinct macropodine genus Protemnodon) had divergent humeral anatomies from extant kangaroos. Here, we use 2D geometric morphometrics to capture the shape of the distal humerus in a range of extant and extinct marsupials and obtain similar results: sthenurines have humeral morphologies more similar to arboreal mammals, while large Protemnodon species (P. brehus and P. anak) have humeral morphologies more similar to terrestrial quadrupedal mammals. Our results provide further evidence for prior hypotheses: that sthenurines did not employ a locomotor mode that involved loading the forelimbs (likely employing bipedal striding as an alternative to quadrupedal or pentapedal locomotion at slow gaits), and that large Protemnodon species were more reliant on quadrupedal locomotion than their extant relatives. This greater diversity of locomotor modes among large Pleistocene kangaroos echoes studies that show a greater diversity in other aspects of ecology, such as diet and habitat occupancy.
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11
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Motani R, Vermeij GJ. Ecophysiological steps of marine adaptation in extant and extinct non-avian tetrapods. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:1769-1798. [PMID: 33904243 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Marine reptiles and mammals are phylogenetically so distant from each other that their marine adaptations are rarely compared directly. We reviewed ecophysiological features in extant non-avian marine tetrapods representing 31 marine colonizations to test whether there is a common pattern across higher taxonomic groups, such as mammals and reptiles. Marine adaptations in tetrapods can be roughly divided into aquatic and haline adaptations, each of which seems to follow a sequence of three steps. In combination, these six categories exhibit five steps of marine adaptation that apply across all clades except snakes: Step M1, incipient use of marine resources; Step M2, direct feeding in the saline sea; Step M3, water balance maintenance without terrestrial fresh water; Step M4, minimized terrestrial travel and loss of terrestrial feeding; and Step M5, loss of terrestrial thermoregulation and fur/plumage. Acquisition of viviparity is not included because there is no known case where viviparity evolved after a tetrapod lineage colonized the sea. A similar sequence is found in snakes but with the haline adaptation step (Step M3) lagging behind aquatic adaptation (haline adaptation is Step S5 in snakes), most likely because their unique method of water balance maintenance requires a supply of fresh water. The same constraint may limit the maximum body size of fully marine snakes. Steps M4 and M5 in all taxa except snakes are associated with skeletal adaptations that are mechanistically linked to relevant ecophysiological features, allowing assessment of marine adaptation steps in some fossil marine tetrapods. We identified four fossil clades containing members that reached Step M5 outside of stem whales, pinnipeds, sea cows and sea turtles, namely Eosauropterygia, Ichthyosauromorpha, Mosasauroidea, and Thalattosuchia, while five other clades reached Step M4: Saurosphargidae, Placodontia, Dinocephalosaurus, Desmostylia, and Odontochelys. Clades reaching Steps M4 and M5, both extant and extinct, appear to have higher species diversity than those only reaching Steps M1 to M3, while the total number of clades is higher for the earlier steps. This suggests that marine colonizers only diversified greatly after they minimized their use of terrestrial resources, with many lineages not reaching these advanced steps. Historical patterns suggest that a clade does not advance to Steps M4 and M5 unless these steps are reached early in the evolution of the clade. Intermediate forms before a clade reached Steps M4 and M5 tend to become extinct without leaving extant descendants or fossil evidence. This makes it difficult to reconstruct the evolutionary history of marine adaptation in many clades. Clades that reached Steps M4 and M5 tend to last longer than other marine tetrapod clades, sometimes for more than 100 million years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Motani
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A
| | - Geerat J Vermeij
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A
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12
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Amson E. Humeral diaphysis structure across mammals. Evolution 2021; 75:748-755. [PMID: 33433007 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Long bones comprise articular ends (epiphyses) joined by transitional metaphyses and a diaphysis (shaft). The structure of the latter is often viewed as regularly tubular across tetrapods (limbed vertebrates). However, assessments of the bone structure along the whole diaphysis are rare. Here, I assess whole-diaphysis profiles of global compactness (bone fraction) of 164 species of extant and extinct therian mammals (marsupials + placentals) in a phylogenetically informed context. Generally terrestrial, mammals have acquired multiple times the highly specialized aerial, fully aquatic, and subterranean lifestyles, allowing to potentially associate specific traits with these lifestyles. I show that there is a consistent increase in global compactness along the diaphysis in most mammals. This pattern is modified in a limited number of specialized species: all aerial clades (gliders and bats) have rather uniform and low values, while cetaceans' humeral diaphysis is marked by a slightly more compact mid-diaphyseal region. Among subterranean clades, structure alterations are most obvious in fossorial talpids (true moles) and their highly modified humerus. These results call for the investigation of bone structure in whole skeletal elements of key fossils in order to reconstruct the patterns of evolutionary modifications associated with lifestyle transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli Amson
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, Berlin, 10115, Germany
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13
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SUCCESSFUL REPAIR OF ANTEBRACHIAL FRACTURES WITH EXTERNAL SKELETAL FIXATION IN THREE MACROPODS. J Zoo Wildl Med 2020; 51:398-406. [PMID: 32549571 DOI: 10.1638/2019-0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Three captive macropods comprising three different species sustained unilateral antebrachial fractures. All fractures were assumed to be trauma related, although the specific circumstances surrounding each case was unknown. Each fracture was surgically repaired with type Ia (unilateral, monoplanar) external skeletal fixators, which were all removed approximately 3 mo postoperatively. Although each animal experienced at least one complication, all animals showed adequate bridging and remodeling at the fracture sites and had good-to-excellent return to normal function after fixator removal. This case series is the first to describe the successful repair of antebrachial fractures using external skeletal fixation in captive macropods and details some of the complications that can occur with postoperative management of captive animals.
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14
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Jing L, He P, Ding D, Qu C, Shao B, Ma J, Wang J. Osteomorphological features of the hind limb bones of Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). Anat Histol Embryol 2020; 50:32-42. [PMID: 32713073 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The intralimb indices and calcaneal linear metrics are known as the reliable predictors of locomotor adaptation in artiodactyls. The osteological features of hindlimb in adult Saiga (Saiga tatarica) were described, and its correlation with cursoriality and habitat adaptation was discussed. Gross anatomy data showed Saiga owned the deep acetabulum as a broad lunate surface, the large acetabular anteversion, the well-developed ischiatic tuberosity and the prominent gluteal lines. It also presented the robust rough line and the strong gluteal tuberosity. A proximodistally elongated eminence located on the cranially distal tibia, which had not been found in goat. The tibial extensor groove was deep. The calcaneal tuberosity was robust. Digital anatomy data showed Saiga owned the higher metatarsal-femur ratio than forest musk deer and sheep. Comparing with wild bovids and sheep, Saiga presented a transitional variation in calcaneal form. The mean greatest length of the calcaneus (GLC) and the height of the sustentacular facet (HSF) in Saiga were shorter than that in sheep and longer than that in wild bovids respectively (F = 587.492; F = 10.264, p < .05). The wild bovids had longer cubonavicular facets than the other two groups (F = 18.587, p < .05). The great metatarsal-femur ratio of Saiga implied a superior cursorial ability and high conservation confronting the different habitats. The calcaneal linear metrics might shed light on lifestyle-related functional adaptation over decades of short-term evolution in the semi-free range environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libaihe Jing
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Peng He
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dongfang Ding
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Can Qu
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Baoping Shao
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jizhong Ma
- Gansu Protection Center of Endangered Animals, Wuwei, China
| | - Jianlin Wang
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Science, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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15
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Rolian C. Endochondral ossification and the evolution of limb proportions. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2020; 9:e373. [PMID: 31997553 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mammals have remarkably diverse limb proportions hypothesized to have evolved adaptively in the context of locomotion and other behaviors. Mechanistically, evolutionary diversity in limb proportions is the result of differential limb bone growth. Longitudinal limb bone growth is driven by the process of endochondral ossification, under the control of the growth plates. In growth plates, chondrocytes undergo a tightly orchestrated life cycle of proliferation, matrix production, hypertrophy, and cell death/transdifferentiation. This life cycle is highly conserved, both among the long bones of an individual, and among homologous bones of distantly related taxa, leading to a finite number of complementary cell mechanisms that can generate heritable phenotype variation in limb bone size and shape. The most important of these mechanisms are chondrocyte population size in chondrogenesis and in individual growth plates, proliferation rates, and hypertrophic chondrocyte size. Comparative evidence in mammals and birds suggests the existence of developmental biases that favor evolutionary changes in some of these cellular mechanisms over others in driving limb allometry. Specifically, chondrocyte population size may evolve more readily in response to selection than hypertrophic chondrocyte size, and extreme hypertrophy may be a rarer evolutionary phenomenon associated with highly specialized modes of locomotion in mammals (e.g., powered flight, ricochetal bipedal hopping). Physical and physiological constraints at multiple levels of biological organization may also have influenced the cell developmental mechanisms that have evolved to produce the highly diverse limb proportions in extant mammals. This article is categorized under: Establishment of Spatial and Temporal Patterns > Regulation of Size, Proportion, and Timing Comparative Development and Evolution > Regulation of Organ Diversity Comparative Development and Evolution > Organ System Comparisons Between Species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Campbell Rolian
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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16
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McHorse BK, Biewener AA, Pierce SE. The Evolution of a Single Toe in Horses: Causes, Consequences, and the Way Forward. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 59:638-655. [PMID: 31127281 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Horses are a classic example of macroevolution in three major traits-large body size, tall-crowned teeth (hypsodonty), and a single toe (monodactyly)-but how and why monodactyly evolved is still poorly understood. Existing hypotheses usually connect digit reduction in horses to the spread and eventual dominance of open-habitat grasslands, which took over from forests during the Cenozoic; digit reduction has been argued to be an adaptation for speed, locomotor economy, stability, and/or increased body size. In this review, we assess the evidence for these (not necessarily mutually exclusive) hypotheses from a variety of related fields, including paleoecology, phylogenetic comparative methods, and biomechanics. Convergent evolution of digit reduction, including in litopterns and artiodactyls, is also considered. We find it unlikely that a single evolutionary driver was responsible for the evolution of monodactyly, because changes in body size, foot posture, habitat, and substrate are frequently found to influence one another (and to connect to broader potential drivers, such as changing climate). We conclude with suggestions for future research to help untangle the complex dynamics of this remarkable morphological change in extinct horses. A path forward should combine regional paleoecology studies, quantitative biomechanical work, and make use of convergence and modern analogs to estimate the relative contributions of potential evolutionary drivers for digit reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna K McHorse
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Concord Field Station, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Andrew A Biewener
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Concord Field Station, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Stephanie E Pierce
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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17
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Proximal Humerus Morphology Indicates Divergent Patterns of Locomotion in Extinct Giant Kangaroos. J MAMM EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-019-09494-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSthenurine kangaroos, extinct “giant kangaroos” known predominantly from the Plio-Pleistocene, have been proposed to have used bipedal striding as a mode of locomotion, based on the morphology of their hind limbs. However, sthenurine forelimb morphology has not been considered in this context, and has important bearing as to whether these kangaroos employed quadrupedal or pentapedal locomotion as a slow gait, as in extant kangaroos. Study of the correlation of morphology of the proximal humerus in a broad range of therian mammals shows that humeral morphology is indicative of the degree of weight-bearing on the forelimbs during locomotion, with terrestrial species being distinctly different from arboreal ones. Extant kangaroos have a proximal humeral morphology similar to extant scansorial (semi-arboreal) mammals, but sthenurine humeri resemble those of suspensory arboreal taxa, which rarely bear weight on their forelimbs, supporting the hypothesis that they used bipedal striding rather than quadrupedal locomotion at slow gaits. The humeral morphology of the enigmatic extinct “giant wallaby,” Protemnodon, may be indicative of a greater extent of quadrupedal locomotion than in extant kangaroos.
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18
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Parsi-Pour P, Kilbourne BM. Functional Morphology and Morphological Diversification of Hind Limb Cross-Sectional Traits in Mustelid Mammals. Integr Org Biol 2020; 2:obz032. [PMID: 33791583 PMCID: PMC7671153 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obz032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Locomotor habits in mammals are strongly tied to limb bones’ lengths, diameters, and proportions. By comparison, fewer studies have examined how limb bone cross-sectional traits relate to locomotor habit. Here, we tested whether climbing, digging, and swimming locomotor habits reflect biomechanically meaningful differences in three cross-sectional traits rendered dimensionless— cross-sectional area (CSA), second moments of area (SMA), and section modulus (MOD)—using femora, tibiae, and fibulae of 28 species of mustelid. CSA and SMA represent resistance to axial compression and bending, respectively, whereas MOD represents structural strength. Given the need to counteract buoyancy in aquatic environments and soil’s high density, we predicted that natatorial and fossorial mustelids have higher values of cross-sectional traits. For all three traits, we found that natatorial mustelids have the highest values, followed by fossorial mustelids, with both of these groups significantly differing from scansorial mustelids. However, phylogenetic relatedness strongly influences diversity in cross-sectional morphology, as locomotor habit strongly correlates with phylogeny. Testing whether hind limb bone cross-sectional traits have evolved adaptively, we fit Ornstein–Uhlenbeck (OU) and Brownian motion (BM) models of trait diversification to cross-sectional traits. The cross-sectional traits of the femur, tibia, and fibula appear to have, respectively, diversified under a multi-rate BM model, a single rate BM model, and a multi-optima OU model. In light of recent studies on mustelid body size and elongation, our findings suggest that the mustelid body plan—and perhaps that of other mammals—is likely the sum of a suite of traits evolving under different models of trait diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Parsi-Pour
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - B M Kilbourne
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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19
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Kilbourne BM, Hutchinson JR. Morphological diversification of biomechanical traits: mustelid locomotor specializations and the macroevolution of long bone cross-sectional morphology. BMC Evol Biol 2019; 19:37. [PMID: 30700269 PMCID: PMC6354431 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-019-1349-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Morphological diversity of limb bone lengths, diameters, and proportions in mammals is known to vary strongly with locomotor habit. It remains less well known how different locomotor habits are correlated with cross-sectional traits of the limb skeleton, such as cross-sectional area (CSA), second moments of area (SMA), and section modulus (MOD) and whether these traits have evolved adaptively. CSA and SMA represent the bone's resistance to axial compression and bending, respectively, whereas MOD represents bone structural strength related to shape. Sampling 28 species of mustelids, a carnivoran lineage with diverse locomotor habits, we tested for differences in humeral, radial, and ulnar cross-sectional traits among specialists for climbing, digging, and swimming, in addition to generalists. Given that the limbs of digging specialists function in the dense substance of soil, and that swimming specialists need to counteract buoyancy, we predicted that these mustelids with these specializations should have the greatest values of cross-sectional traits. RESULTS We analyzed cross-sectional traits (calculated via μCT scanning and rendered dimensionless) in 5% increments along a bone's length and found significant differences among locomotor habits, though differences in ulnar cross-sectional traits were fewer than those for the humerus and radius. Swimming specialists had the greatest values of cross-sectional traits, followed by digging specialists. Climbing specialists had the lowest values of cross-sectional traits. However, phylogenetic affinity underlies these results. Fitting models of trait evolution to CSA and SMA revealed that a multi-rate Brownian motion model and a multi-optima Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model are the best-fitting models of evolution for these traits. However, inspection of α-values uncovered that many of the OU models did not differ from a Brownian motion model. CONCLUSIONS Within Mustelidae, differences in limb function and locomotor habit influence cross-sectional traits in ways that produce patterns that may diverge from adaptive patterns exhibited by external traits (e.g., bone lengths) of the mammalian limb skeleton. These results suggest that not all the traits of a single organ evolve under a single evolutionary process and that models of trait evolution should be fit to a range of traits for a better understanding of the evolution of the mammalian locomotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M Kilbourne
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany.
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
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