1
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Lama SJ, Lopera L, Bracco A. The role of mesoscale-driven connectivity patterns in coral recovery around Moorea and Tahiti, French Polynesia. Sci Rep 2024; 14:22349. [PMID: 39333602 PMCID: PMC11436744 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-73185-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Coral reefs are declining due to anthropogenic warming. Nonetheless, some have recovered quickly from repeated bleaching events. Coral recovery depends on adaptation capabilities, fishing pressure, overall number of stressors, reef conditions before the event, and degree of connectivity. Coral reefs that are connected to many others can receive viable larvae and regain coverage faster. Around Moorea and Tahiti, within the Society Islands of French Polynesia, coral cover has regained its previous levels rapidly, despite several mass bleaching events over the past three decades. Here it is explored whether the connectivity with distant reefs may support such recovery by modeling the transport of coral larvae around the islands over 28 years. Ocean currents enable connectivity with the Tuamotu Islands, ~ 250 km to the northeast, that act as sources to Moorea and Tahiti for pelagic larval durations of three weeks or longer. The circulation around Moorea and Tahiti is very dynamic; mesoscale eddies can also halt the connectivity with the Tuamotu Islands and sporadically transport larvae from reefs to the west and southeast instead. With many undisturbed coral reefs within a 300 km radius and strong mesoscale variability, a dynamic, long-range connectivity may explain the recovery of reefs around Moorea and Tahiti.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skylar J Lama
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Program in Ocean Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Luisa Lopera
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Program in Ocean Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Annalisa Bracco
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Program in Ocean Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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2
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McWhorter JK, Halloran PR, Roff G, Mumby PJ. Climate change impacts on mesophotic regions of the Great Barrier Reef. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2303336121. [PMID: 38588432 PMCID: PMC11032494 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2303336121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Climate change projections for coral reefs are founded exclusively on sea surface temperatures (SST). While SST projections are relevant for the shallowest reefs, neglecting ocean stratification overlooks the striking differences in temperature experienced by deeper reefs for all or part of the year. Density stratification creates a buoyancy barrier partitioning the upper and lower parts of the water column. Here, we mechanistically downscale climate models and quantify patterns of thermal stratification above mesophotic corals (depth 30 to 50 m) of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). Stratification insulates many offshore regions of the GBR from heatwaves at the surface. However, this protection is lost once global average temperatures exceed ~3 °C above preindustrial, after which mesophotic temperatures surpass a recognized threshold of 30 °C for coral mortality. Bottom temperatures on the GBR (30 to 50 m) from 2050 to 2060 are estimated to increase by ~0.5 to 1 °C under lower climate emissions (SSP1-1.9) and ~1.2 to 1.7 °C under higher climate emissions (SSP5-8.5). In short, mesophotic coral reefs are also threatened by climate change and research might prioritize the sensitivity of such corals to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K. McWhorter
- Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QJ, United Kingdom
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab, School of the Environment The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD4072, Australia
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystem Divisions, Miami, FL33149
| | - Paul R. Halloran
- Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QJ, United Kingdom
| | - George Roff
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab, School of the Environment The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD4072, Australia
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Oceans & Atmosphere, St Lucia, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Peter J. Mumby
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab, School of the Environment The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD4072, Australia
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3
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Jia S, Geng X, Cai Z, Wang Y, Shen J, Li Y, Wu Z, Chen S, Wang D. Comparison of physiological and transcriptome responses of corals to strong light and high temperature. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116143. [PMID: 38430582 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/04/2024]
Abstract
Coral reefs are essential for marine ecology and biodiversity. Global climate change has resulted in severe coral reef degradation, partly via coral bleaching, which is caused by rising sea temperatures and solar light intensity. In this study, we examined the impact of strong light (300 µmol.m-2.s-1) and high temperature (33°C) on the growth, immunity, and gene expression of Galaxea fascicularis. Strong light caused coral bleaching in the absence of high sea temperatures, while no obvious bleaching was observed under high temperature alone. The effect of strong light on calcification rate of G. fascicularis is significantly weaker than that of high temperature. Both strong light and high temperatures significantly affected the immune enzyme activity of G. fascicularis symbionts, with the former having a strong effect on their photosystem. Temperature affected the digestive system, replication and repair, and cell growth and death of coral hosts, as indicated by transcriptomics analysis. These results provide a valuable for strategies to mitigate coral bleaching. TEASER: We explored the effects of strong light exposure and high temperature on coral reefs and their symbiont algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwen Jia
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Geng
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Zefu Cai
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Jie Shen
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Yuanchao Li
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Zhongjie Wu
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Shiquan Chen
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China.
| | - Daoru Wang
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou 571136, China; Key Laboratory for Coastal Marine Eco-Environment Process and Carbon Sink of Hainan province, Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572000, China; Key laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources (Hainan Tropical Ocean University), Ministry of Education, Sanya 572022, China.
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4
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Sannassy Pilly S, Roche RC, Richardson LE, Turner JR. Depth variation in benthic community response to repeated marine heatwaves on remote Central Indian Ocean reefs. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231246. [PMID: 38545610 PMCID: PMC10966399 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Coral reefs are increasingly impacted by climate-induced warming events. However, there is limited empirical evidence on the variation in the response of shallow coral reef communities to thermal stress across depths. Here, we assess depth-dependent changes in coral reef benthic communities following successive marine heatwaves from 2015 to 2017 across a 5-25 m depth gradient in the remote Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean. Our analyses show an overall decline in hard and soft coral cover and an increase in crustose coralline algae, sponge and reef pavement following successive marine heatwaves on the remote reef system. Our findings indicate that the changes in benthic communities in response to elevated seawater temperatures varied across depths. We found greater changes in benthic group cover at shallow depths (5-15 m) compared with deeper zones (15-25 m). The loss of hard coral cover was better predicted by initial thermal stress, while the loss of soft coral was associated with repeated thermal stress following successive warming events. Our study shows that benthic communities extending to 25 m depth were impacted by successive marine heatwaves, supporting concerns about the resilience of shallow coral reef communities to increasingly severe climate-driven warming events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ronan C. Roche
- School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, BangorLL59 5AB, UK
| | | | - John R. Turner
- School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, BangorLL59 5AB, UK
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5
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Scucchia F, Wong K, Zaslansky P, Putnam HM, Goodbody-Gringley G, Mass T. Morphological and genetic mechanisms underlying the plasticity of the coral Porites astreoides across depths in Bermuda. J Struct Biol 2023; 215:108036. [PMID: 37832837 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2023.108036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
The widespread decline of shallow-water coral reefs has fueled interest in assessing whether mesophotic reefs can act as refugia replenishing deteriorated shallower reefs through larval exchange. Here we explore the morphological and molecular basis facilitating survival of planulae and adults of the coral Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816; Hexacorallia: Poritidae) along the vertical depth gradient in Bermuda. We found differences in micro-skeletal features such as bigger calyxes and coarser surface of the skeletal spines in shallow corals. Yet, tomographic reconstructions reveal an analogous mineral distribution between shallow and mesophotic adults, pointing to similar skeleton growth dynamics. Our study reveals patterns of host genetic connectivity and minimal symbiont depth-zonation across a broader depth range than previously known for this species in Bermuda. Transcriptional variations across life stages showed different regulation of metabolism and stress response functions, unraveling molecular responses to environmental conditions at different depths. Overall, these findings increase our understanding of coral acclimatory capability across broad vertical gradients, ultimately allowing better evaluation of the refugia potential of mesophotic reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Scucchia
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences University of Haifa, Israel; The Interuniversity Institute of Marine Sciences, Eilat, Israel.
| | - Kevin Wong
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States
| | - Paul Zaslansky
- Department for Operative, Preventive and Pediatric Dentistry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hollie M Putnam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, United States
| | - Gretchen Goodbody-Gringley
- Central Caribbean Marine Institute, Little Cayman, Cayman Islands; Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences, St. George's, Bermuda
| | - Tali Mass
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences University of Haifa, Israel.
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6
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Diaz C, Foster NL, Attrill MJ, Bolton A, Ganderton P, Howell KL, Robinson E, Hosegood P. Mesophotic coral bleaching associated with changes in thermocline depth. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6528. [PMID: 37845210 PMCID: PMC10579316 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42279-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
As global temperatures continue to rise, shallow coral reef bleaching has become more intense and widespread. Mesophotic coral ecosystems reside in deeper (30-150 m), cooler water and were thought to offer a refuge to shallow-water reefs. Studies now show that mesophotic coral ecosystems instead have limited connectivity with shallow corals but host diverse endemic communities. Given their extensive distribution and high biodiversity, understanding their susceptibility to warming oceans is imperative. In this multidisciplinary study of an atoll in the Chagos Archipelago in the central Indian Ocean, we show evidence of coral bleaching at 90 m, despite the absence of shallow-water bleaching. We also show that the bleaching was associated with sustained thermocline deepening driven by the Indian Ocean Dipole, which might be further enhanced by internal waves whose influence varied at a sub-atoll scale. Our results demonstrate the potential vulnerability of mesophotic coral ecosystems to thermal stress and highlight the need for oceanographic knowledge to predict bleaching susceptibility and heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Diaz
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Nicola L Foster
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Martin J Attrill
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Adam Bolton
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Peter Ganderton
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Kerry L Howell
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Edward Robinson
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Phil Hosegood
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
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7
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Godefroid M, Gouveia A, Otero-Ferrer F, Espino F, Tuya F, Dubois P. Higher daily temperature range at depth is linked with higher thermotolerance in antipatharians from the canary islands. J Therm Biol 2023; 115:103593. [PMID: 37331319 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Sensitivity to ocean warming is generally expected to be lower in populations from more heterogeneous thermal environments, owing to greater phenotypic plasticity and/or genotype selection. While resilience of benthic populations from thermally fluctuating environments has been investigated at a variety of spatial scales, this has received limited attention across depths and has remained unresolved for Antipatharian corals, key habitat-forming species across a wide bathymetric range in all of the world oceans. In this study, we aimed at addressing the thermal sensitivity of Antipatharian corals across depths characterized by different levels of temperature fluctuations. We used an acute ramping experimental approach to compare the thermal sensitivity of colonies of (1) the branched Antipatharian Antipathella wollastoni (Gray, 1857) from two distinct depths (25 and 40 m) in Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain); and of (2) unbranched mesophotic (80 m) Stichopathes species, from Lanzarote (Canary Islands, Spain; S. gracilis (Gray, 1857)), and Stichopathes sp. clade C from Mo'orea, French Polynesia. Results showed that the daily temperature range in Gran Canaria was larger at mesophotic depths (3.9 °C vs. 2.8 °C at 40 and 25 m, respectively) and this coincided with lower thermal sensitivity in mesophotic colonies of A. wollastoni. Second, S. gracilis from Lanzarote showed a lower thermal sensitivity than the previously studied Stichopathes sp. clade C from Mo'orea (French Polynesia) inhabiting a less variable habitat. These results are in line with the climate variability hypothesis, which states that populations under more variable thermal conditions have a lower sensitivity to warming than those from more stable environments, as they have adapted/acclimated to these higher levels of temperature fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Godefroid
- Marine Biology Laboratory, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av. F.D. Roosevelt, CP 160/15, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium.
| | - Adriana Gouveia
- BIOCON, IU-ECOAQUA, Parque Científico Tecnológico Marino de Taliarte, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214, Gran Canaria, Spain; Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Francisco Otero-Ferrer
- BIOCON, IU-ECOAQUA, Parque Científico Tecnológico Marino de Taliarte, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214, Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Fernando Espino
- BIOCON, IU-ECOAQUA, Parque Científico Tecnológico Marino de Taliarte, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214, Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Fernando Tuya
- BIOCON, IU-ECOAQUA, Parque Científico Tecnológico Marino de Taliarte, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214, Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Philippe Dubois
- Marine Biology Laboratory, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av. F.D. Roosevelt, CP 160/15, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium
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8
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Shlesinger T, van Woesik R. Oceanic differences in coral-bleaching responses to marine heatwaves. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 871:162113. [PMID: 36773903 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Anomalously high ocean temperatures have increased in frequency, intensity, and duration over the last several decades because of greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming and marine heatwaves. Reef-building corals are sensitive to such temperature anomalies that commonly lead to coral bleaching, mortality, and changes in community structure. Yet, despite these overarching effects, there are geographical differences in thermal regimes, evolutionary histories, and past disturbances that may lead to different bleaching responses of corals within and among oceans. Here we examined the overall bleaching responses of corals in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, using both a spatially explicit Bayesian mixed-effects model and a deep-learning neural-network model. We used a 40-year global dataset encompassing 23,288 coral-reef surveys at 11,058 sites in 88 countries, from 1980 to 2020. Focusing on ocean-wide differences we assessed the relationships between the percentage of bleached corals and different temperature-related metrics alongside a suite of environmental variables. We found that while high sea-surface temperatures were consistently, and strongly, related to coral bleaching within all oceans, there were clear geographical differences in the relationships between coral bleaching and most environmental variables. For instance, there was an increase in coral bleaching with depth in the Atlantic Ocean whereas the opposite was observed in the Indian Ocean, and no clear trend could be seen in the Pacific Ocean. The standard deviation of thermal-stress anomalies was negatively related to coral bleaching in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but not in the Indian Ocean. Globally, coral bleaching has progressively occurred at higher temperatures over the last four decades within the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, although, again, there were differences among the three oceans. Together, such patterns highlight that historical circumstances and geographical differences in oceanographic conditions play a central role in contemporary coral-bleaching responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Shlesinger
- Institute for Global Ecology, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901, FL, USA
| | - Robert van Woesik
- Institute for Global Ecology, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901, FL, USA.
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9
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Howe-Kerr LI, Grupstra CGB, Rabbitt KM, Conetta D, Coy SR, Klinges JG, Maher RL, McConnell KM, Meiling SS, Messyasz A, Schmeltzer ER, Seabrook S, Sims JA, Veglia AJ, Thurber AR, Thurber RLV, Correa AMS. Viruses of a key coral symbiont exhibit temperature-driven productivity across a reefscape. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2023; 3:27. [PMID: 37009785 PMCID: PMC10068613 DOI: 10.1038/s43705-023-00227-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Viruses can affect coral health by infecting their symbiotic dinoflagellate partners (Symbiodiniaceae). Yet, viral dynamics in coral colonies exposed to environmental stress have not been studied at the reef scale, particularly within individual viral lineages. We sequenced the viral major capsid protein (mcp) gene of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses known to infect symbiotic dinoflagellates ('dinoRNAVs') to analyze their dynamics in the reef-building coral, Porites lobata. We repeatedly sampled 54 colonies harboring Cladocopium C15 dinoflagellates, across three environmentally distinct reef zones (fringing reef, back reef, and forereef) around the island of Moorea, French Polynesia over a 3-year period and spanning a reef-wide thermal stress event. By the end of the sampling period, 28% (5/18) of corals in the fringing reef experienced partial mortality versus 78% (14/18) of corals in the forereef. Over 90% (50/54) of colonies had detectable dinoRNAV infections. Reef zone influenced the composition and richness of viral mcp amino acid types ('aminotypes'), with the fringing reef containing the highest aminotype richness. The reef-wide thermal stress event significantly increased aminotype dispersion, and this pattern was strongest in the colonies that experienced partial mortality. These findings demonstrate that dinoRNAV infections respond to environmental fluctuations experienced in situ on reefs. Further, viral productivity will likely increase as ocean temperatures continue to rise, potentially impacting the foundational symbiosis underpinning coral reef ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carsten G B Grupstra
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kristen M Rabbitt
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dennis Conetta
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Samantha R Coy
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Oceanography, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - J Grace Klinges
- Mote Marine Laboratory, Elizabeth Moore International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration, Summerland Key, FL, USA
| | - Rebecca L Maher
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | | | - Sonora S Meiling
- University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, USA
| | - Adriana Messyasz
- Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | | | - Sarah Seabrook
- Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Jordan A Sims
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Alex J Veglia
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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10
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Godefroid M, Dubois P, Hédouin L. Thermal performance with depth: Comparison of a mesophotic scleractinian and an antipatharian species subjected to internal waves in Mo'orea, French Polynesia. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 184:105851. [PMID: 36603344 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2022.105851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Local thermal environment has a strong influence on the physiology of marine ectotherms. This is particularly relevant for tropical organisms living close to their thermal optimum, well exemplified by the increasing frequency of bleaching occurrence in shallow-water corals. Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems (MCEs) were suggested as potential oases, especially when they are submitted to internal waves inducing short-term cooling events. Indeed, probability of bleaching occurrence in scleractinians was reported to decrease with depth in Mo'orea as temperature variability increases. However, ecophysiological data are currently lacking to understand the cause of lower susceptibility/increased plasticity of deeper corals. A growing interest has been devoted the last decade to MCEs, but our understanding of the physiological performance of benthic organisms living in this environment remains relatively unexplored. To tackle that question, we first compared the metabolic responses (dark respiration, net photosynthesis and photosynthetic efficiency) of the depth-generalist scleractinian Pachyseris speciosa from two heterogeneous thermal environment (25 and 85 m depths) to acute heat stress to determine if the local thermal environment could predict coral response to warming. Then, we tested the thermal performance of two sympatric species (the scleractinian P. speciosa and the antipatharian Stichopathes sp.) to determine if there are inter-species differences in performances in species experiencing identical levels of temperature variability, at mesophotic depths (85 m). Results revealed broader thermal performances in the mesophotic P. speciosa compared to mid-depth ones, and constrained performances in the mesophotic antipatharian compared to the scleractinian species. We hypothesize that the high fluctuations in temperature due to internal waves in deeper areas contribute to the broader thermal performances of mesophotic P. speciosa. However, the constrained performances of the mesophotic antipatharian compared to P. speciosa suggests that other processes than the symbiosis with zooxanthellae also influence thermal performances of these mesophotic organisms. Our results supported that Stichopathes sp. lives close to its thermal optimum, suggesting a (relatively) cold thermal specialist strategy. In this context, composition of MCEs in the future is unlikely to shift to antipatharian-dominated landscape and will remain coral-dominated landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Godefroid
- Laboratoire de Biologie Marine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Avenue F.D. Roosevelt 50, CP160/15, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium.
| | - Philippe Dubois
- Laboratoire de Biologie Marine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Avenue F.D. Roosevelt 50, CP160/15, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Laetitia Hédouin
- PSL Research University: EPHE-CNRS-UPVD, USR 3278 CRIOBE, BP 1013, 98729, Papetoai, Mo'orea, French Polynesia; Laboratoire D'Excellence CORAIL, Mo'orea, French Polynesia
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11
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Hidden heatwaves and severe coral bleaching linked to mesoscale eddies and thermocline dynamics. Nat Commun 2023; 14:25. [PMID: 36609386 PMCID: PMC9822911 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35550-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The severity of marine heatwaves (MHWs) that are increasingly impacting ocean ecosystems, including vulnerable coral reefs, has primarily been assessed using remotely sensed sea-surface temperatures (SSTs), without information relevant to heating across ecosystem depths. Here, using a rare combination of SST, high-resolution in-situ temperatures, and sea level anomalies observed over 15 years near Moorea, French Polynesia, we document subsurface MHWs that have been paradoxical in comparison to SST metrics and associated with unexpected coral bleaching across depths. Variations in the depth range and severity of MHWs was driven by mesoscale (10s to 100s of km) eddies that altered sea levels and thermocline depths and decreased (2007, 2017 and 2019) or increased (2012, 2015, 2016) internal-wave cooling. Pronounced eddy-induced reductions in internal waves during early 2019 contributed to a prolonged subsurface MHW and unexpectedly severe coral bleaching, with subsequent mortality offsetting almost a decade of coral recovery. Variability in mesoscale eddy fields, and thus thermocline depths, is expected to increase with climate change, which, along with strengthening and deepening stratification, could increase the occurrence of subsurface MHWs over ecosystems historically insulated from surface ocean heating by the cooling effects of internal waves.
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12
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Rotjan RD, Ray NE, Cole I, Castro KG, Kennedy BRC, Barbasch T, Lesneski KC, Lord KS, Bhardwaj A, Edens M, Karageorge I, Klawon C, Kruh-Needleman H, McCarthy G, Perez R, Roberts C, Trumble IF, Volk A, Torres J, Morey J. Shifts in predator behaviour following climate induced disturbance on coral reefs. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221431. [PMID: 36541169 PMCID: PMC9768634 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral reefs are increasingly ecologically destabilized across the globe due to climate change. Behavioural plasticity in corallivore behaviour and short-term trophic ecology in response to bleaching events may influence the extent and severity of coral bleaching and subsequent recovery potential, yet our understanding of these interactions in situ remains unclear. Here, we investigated interactions between corallivory and coral bleaching during a severe high thermal event (10.3-degree heating weeks) in Belize. We found that parrotfish changed their grazing behaviour in response to bleaching by selectively avoiding bleached Orbicella spp. colonies regardless of bleaching severity or coral size. For bleached corals, we hypothesize that this short-term respite from corallivory may temporarily buffer coral energy budgets by not redirecting energetic resources to wound healing, and may therefore enable compensatory nutrient acquisition. However, colonies that had previously been heavily grazed were also more susceptible to bleaching, which is likely to increase mortality risk. Thus, short-term respite from corallivory during bleaching may not be sufficient to functionally rescue corals during prolonged bleaching. Such pairwise interactions and behavioural shifts in response to disturbance may appear small scale and short term, but have the potential to fundamentally alter ecological outcomes, especially in already-degraded ecosystems that are vulnerable and sensitive to change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randi D. Rotjan
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Nicholas E. Ray
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ingrid Cole
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Kurt G. Castro
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Brian R. C. Kennedy
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Tina Barbasch
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Kathryn C. Lesneski
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Karina Scavo Lord
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Anjali Bhardwaj
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA,Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Madeleine Edens
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ioanna Karageorge
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Caitlynn Klawon
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Hallie Kruh-Needleman
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Gretchen McCarthy
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Raziel Perez
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Christopher Roberts
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Isabela F. Trumble
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Aryanna Volk
- Boston University Marine Program, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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13
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Sampaio E, Rault V. Citizen-led expeditions can generate scientific knowledge and prospects for researchers. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001872. [PMID: 36378647 PMCID: PMC9665369 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Citizen-led explorative expeditions can foster closer connections between the public and the scientific community. Such expeditions have a considerable but mostly unrecognized track record of success and can help create important networks for advancing science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Sampaio
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- * E-mail:
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14
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Pérez-Rosales G, Hernández-Agreda A, Bongaerts P, Rouzé H, Pichon M, Carlot J, Torda G, Parravicini V, Hédouin L. Mesophotic depths hide high coral cover communities in French Polynesia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 844:157049. [PMID: 35780903 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The rapid decline of shallow coral reefs has increased the interest in the long-understudied mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs). However, MCEs are usually characterised by rather low to moderate scleractinian coral cover, with only a few descriptions of high coral cover at depth. Here, we explored eight islands across French Polynesia over a wide depth range (6 to 120 m) to identify coral cover hotspots at mesophotic depths and the co-occurrent biotic groups and abiotic factors that influence such high scleractinian cover. Using Bayesian modelling, we found that 20 out of 64 of studied deep sites exhibited a coral cover higher than expected in the mesophotic range (e.g. as high as 81.8 % at 40 m, 74.5 % at 60 m, 53 % at 90 m and 42 % at 120 m vs the average expected values based on the model of 31.2 % at 40 m, 22.8 % at 60 m, 14.6 % at 90 m and 9.8 % at 120 m). Omitting the collinear factors light-irradiance and depth, these 'hotspots' of coral cover corresponded to mesophotic sites and depths characterised by hard substrate, a steep to moderate slope, and the dominance of laminar corals. Our work unveils the presence of unexpectedly and unique high coral cover communities at mesophotic depths in French Polynesia, highlighting the importance of expanding the research on deeper depths for the potential relevance in the conservation management of tropical coral reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Pérez-Rosales
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France.
| | | | - Pim Bongaerts
- California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
| | - Héloïse Rouzé
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; Marine Laboratory, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam 96923, USA
| | - Michel Pichon
- Biodiversity Section, Queensland Museum, Townsville 4811, Australia
| | - Jérémy Carlot
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Gergely Torda
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Valeriano Parravicini
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Laetitia Hédouin
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia; PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
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15
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Pérez‐Rosales G, Pichon M, Rouzé H, Villeger S, Torda G, Bongaerts P, Carlot J, Parravicini V, Hédouin L, Bardout G, Fauchet J, Ferucci A, Gazzola F, Lagarrigue G, Leblond J, Marivint E, Mittau A, Mollon N, Paulme N, Périé‐Bardout E, Pete R, Pujolle S, Siu G. Mesophotic coral ecosystems of French Polynesia are hotspots of alpha and beta generic diversity for scleractinian assemblages. DIVERS DISTRIB 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Pérez‐Rosales
- PSL Research University EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Moorea French Polynesia
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France
| | - Michel Pichon
- Biodiversity Section Queensland Museum Townsville Queensland Australia
| | - Héloïse Rouzé
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France
- Marine Laboratory University of Guam Mangilao Guam USA
| | | | - Gergely Torda
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Queensland Australia
| | - Pim Bongaerts
- California Academy of Sciences San Francisco California USA
| | - Jeremey Carlot
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France
| | - Valeriano Parravicini
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France
| | - Laetitia Hédouin
- PSL Research University EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Moorea French Polynesia
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS USR 3278 CRIOBE Université de Perpignan Perpignan Cedex France
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16
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Liberman R, Shlesinger T, Loya Y, Benayahu Y. Soft coral reproductive phenology along a depth gradient: Can "going deeper" provide a viable refuge? Ecology 2022; 103:e3760. [PMID: 35582927 PMCID: PMC9540190 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Many species across a wide range of taxa and habitats display phenological shifts and differences in response to both environmental gradients and climate change. Moreover, the wide‐scale decline of numerous ecosystems is leading to increasing efforts to identify zones that might serve as natural refuges from various disturbances, including ocean warming. One such refuge was suggested to be that of the deep coral reefs, but whether depth can provide coral populations with a viable and reproductive refuge remains unclear. Given the global coral‐reef degradation and the key role that corals play as ecosystem engineers, their reproductive ecology has been widely studied. A particular knowledge gap nonetheless exists regarding coral reproductive phenology along a depth gradient. Filling in this gap may uncover the environmental cues that regulate coral reproduction, leading to better predictions of population connectivity, and their possible responses to climate change and other environmental changes. Here, using long‐term in situ observations of the soft coral Rhytisma fulvum's reproductive activity along its entire depth range (0–45 m), we examined the relationship among several environmental factors and the coral's reproductive phenology and activity over five successive annual breeding seasons. Compared with the shallow depths, a lower number of reproducing colonies was found in habitats deeper than 30 m, highlighting possible constraints on coral reproduction at the deeper end of their range. Our results further revealed that an increase in seawater temperature over 1–2‐day intervals during the breeding season correlated with the onset of reproductive activity along the depth gradient, leading to different reproductive periodicities in different depths. These differences suggest that differential temperature regimes and reproductive timing across depth may create intraspecific temporal reproductive segregation, possibly reducing connectivity among populations along a depth gradient. Moreover, we found high variability among years in both the timing of breeding activities and in the level of reproductive synchrony among corals from different depths. Overall, our study questions whether depth can provide a long‐term and viable refuge for corals in the face of global environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronen Liberman
- School of Zoology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.,The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat, Israel
| | - Tom Shlesinger
- School of Zoology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.,Current address: Institute for Global Ecology, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA
| | - Yossi Loya
- School of Zoology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Yehuda Benayahu
- School of Zoology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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17
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Bleaching physiology: who's the 'weakest link' - host vs. symbiont? Emerg Top Life Sci 2022; 6:17-32. [PMID: 35179208 DOI: 10.1042/etls20210228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Environmental stress, such as an increase in the sea surface temperature, triggers coral bleaching, a profound dysfunction of the mutualist symbiosis between the host cnidarians and their photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the Family Symbiodiniaceae. Because of climate change, mass coral bleaching events will increase in frequency and severity in the future, threatening the persistence of this iconic marine ecosystem at global scale. Strategies adapted to coral reefs preservation and restoration may stem from the identification of the succession of events and of the different molecular and cellular contributors to the bleaching phenomenon. To date, studies aiming to decipher the cellular cascade leading to temperature-related bleaching, emphasized the involvement of reactive species originating from compromised bioenergetic pathways (e.g. cellular respiration and photosynthesis). These molecules are responsible for damage to various cellular components causing the dysregulation of cellular homeostasis and the breakdown of symbiosis. In this review, we synthesize the current knowledge available in the literature on the cellular mechanisms caused by thermal stress, which can initiate or participate in the cell cascade leading to the loss of symbionts, with a particular emphasis on the role of each partner in the initiating processes.
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