1
|
Pollo P, Nakagawa S, Kasumovic MM. The better, the choosier: A meta-analysis on interindividual variation of male mate choice. Ecol Lett 2022; 25:1305-1322. [PMID: 35259282 PMCID: PMC9543502 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Male mate choice occurs in several animal species, but we know little about the factors that influence the expression of this behaviour. Males vary in their capacity to acquire mates (i.e. male quality), which could be crucial to male mate choice expression but it is often overlooked. Using a meta‐analytical approach, we explore interindividual variation in the expression of male mate choice by comparing the mating investment of males of different qualities and phenotypes to high‐ and low‐quality females. We used two datasets that together contained information from 60 empirical studies, comprising 52 species. We found that males of all qualities and phenotypes prefer high‐quality females, but differ in the strength of such preference. High‐ and medium‐quality males are choosier than low‐quality males. Similarly, males that are larger or in greater body condition are choosier than their counterparts. In contrast, male body mass and age are not associated with changes in male mate choice. We also show that experimental design may influence our understanding of male mating investment patterns, which may limit the generalisation of our findings. Nonetheless, we argue that male quality may be an important feature in the expression of male mate choice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Pollo
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia
| | - Shinichi Nakagawa
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michael M Kasumovic
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kong W, Wang Y, Guo Y, Chai X, Li J, Ma R. Effects of operational sex ratio, mating age, and male mating history on mating and reproductive behavior in Grapholita molesta. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 111:616-627. [PMID: 33998417 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485321000390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The short-lived polygamous moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) is an important fruit pest worldwide. Trapping males by synthetic female sex pheromones is not an effective reproductive control strategy. It is important to improve this technology by understanding the mating system of G. molesta. This study investigated mating opportunities and fertile egg production by altering the operational sex ratio, mating age, and male mating history in repeated single mating and multiple mating in the two sexes. Our results showed that the mating and reproductive parameters of virgin males were affected by the number and age of virgin females. Males preferred a female number ≤three-fifths of the male number or ≤2-day-old females, while they discriminated against a female number ≥three times of the male number or ≥5-day-old females. On the other hand, the mating and reproductive parameters of virgin females were affected by repeated single mating and especially multiple mating under different male mating histories. Females preferred once-mated males and discriminated against virgin males. These results indicated that mating systems including more and older virgin females for virgin males and different virgin males for virgin females may be suitable for suppressing G. molesta populations. Hence, these results revealed that preventing mating of virgin adults by synthetic female sex pheromones should be most effective in controlling G. molesta.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weina Kong
- College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
- Shanxi Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Yi Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Yongfu Guo
- College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaohan Chai
- College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Jie Li
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Ruiyan Ma
- College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Simmons LW, Parker GA, Hosken DJ. Evolutionary insight from a humble fly: sperm competition and the yellow dungfly. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20200062. [PMID: 33070730 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of the yellow dungfly in the 1960s provided one of the first quantitative demonstrations of the costs and benefits associated with male and female reproductive behaviour. These studies advanced appreciation of sexual selection as a significant evolutionary mechanism and contributed to the 1970s paradigm shift toward individual selectionist thinking. Three behaviours in particular led to the realization that sexual selection can continue during and after mating: (i) female receptivity to remating, (ii) sperm displacement and (iii) post-copulatory mate guarding. These behaviours either generate, or are adaptations to sperm competition, cryptic female choice and sexual conflict. Here we review this body of work, and its contribution to the development of post-copulatory sexual selection theory. This article is part of the theme issue 'Fifty years of sperm competition'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leigh W Simmons
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
| | - Geoff A Parker
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - David J Hosken
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mahdjoub H, Blanckenhorn WU, Lüpold S, Roy J, Gourgoulianni N, Khelifa R. Fitness consequences of the combined effects of veterinary and agricultural pesticides on a non-target insect. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 250:126271. [PMID: 32114345 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides and veterinary products that are globally used in farming against pests and parasites are known to impact non-target beneficial organisms. While most studies have tested the lethal and sub-lethal effects of single chemicals, species are exposed to multiple contaminants that might interact and exacerbate the toxic responses of life-history fitness components. Here we experimentally tested an ecotoxicological scenario that is likely to be widespread in nature, with non-target dung communities being exposed both to cattle parasiticides during the larval stage and to agricultural insecticides during their adult life. We assessed the independent and combined consumptive effects of varying ivermectin and spinosad concentration on juvenile life-history and adult reproductive traits of the widespread yellow dung fly (Scathophaga stercoraria; Diptera: Scathophagidae). Larval exposure to ivermectin prolonged development time and reduced egg-to-adult survival, body size, and the magnitude of the male-biased sexual size dimorphism. The consumption by the predatory adult flies of spinosad-contaminated prey showed an additional, independent (from ivermectin) negative effect on female clutch size, and subsequent egg hatching success, but not on the body size and sexual size dimorphism of their surviving offspring. However, there were interactive synergistic effects of both contaminants on offspring emergence and body size. Our results document adverse effects of the combination of different chemicals on fitness components of a dung insect, highlighting transgenerational effects of adult exposure to contaminants for their offspring. These findings suggest that ecotoxicological tests should consider the combination of different contaminants for more accurate eco-assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hayat Mahdjoub
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Wolf U Blanckenhorn
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Stefan Lüpold
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jeannine Roy
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Natalia Gourgoulianni
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Rassim Khelifa
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Botany, 2212 Main Mall, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Biodiversity Research Centre, 2212 Main Mall, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Schäfer MA, Berger D, Rohner PT, Kjaersgaard A, Bauerfeind SS, Guillaume F, Fox CW, Blanckenhorn WU. Geographic clines in wing morphology relate to colonization history in New World but not Old World populations of yellow dung flies. Evolution 2018; 72:1629-1644. [PMID: 29911337 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Geographic clines offer insights about putative targets and agents of natural selection as well as tempo and mode of adaptation. However, demographic processes can lead to clines that are indistinguishable from adaptive divergence. Using the widespread yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), we examine quantitative genetic differentiation (QST ) of wing shape across North America, Europe, and Japan, and compare this differentiation with that of ten microsatellites (FST ). Morphometric analyses of 28 populations reared at three temperatures revealed significant thermal plasticity, sexual dimorphism, and geographic differentiation in wing shape. In North America morphological differentiation followed the decline in microsatellite variability along the presumed route of recent colonization from the southeast to the northwest. Across Europe, where S. stercoraria presumably existed for much longer time and where no molecular pattern of isolation by distance was evident, clinal variation was less pronounced despite significant morphological differentiation (QST >FST ). Shape vector comparisons further indicate that thermal plasticity (hot-to-cold) does not mirror patterns of latitudinal divergence (south-to-north), as might have been expected under a scenario with temperature as the major agent of selection. Our findings illustrate the importance of detailed phylogeographic information when interpreting geographic clines of dispersal traits in an adaptive evolutionary framework.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Schäfer
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David Berger
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Animal Ecology at Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18d, SE-75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Patrick T Rohner
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anders Kjaersgaard
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie S Bauerfeind
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frédéric Guillaume
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Charles W Fox
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
| | - Wolf U Blanckenhorn
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gress BE, Pitnick S. Size-dependent ejaculation strategies and reproductive success in the yellow dung fly, Scathophaga stercoraria. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
7
|
Benelli G, Donati E, Romano D, Ragni G, Bonsignori G, Stefanini C, Canale A. Is bigger better? Male body size affects wing-borne courtship signals and mating success in the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae). INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 23:869-880. [PMID: 26173571 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Variations in male body size are known to affect inter- and intrasexual selection outcomes in a wide range of animals. In mating systems involving sexual signaling before mating, body size often acts as a key factor affecting signal strength and mate choice. We evaluated the effect of male size on courtship displays and mating success of the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae). Wing vibrations performed during successful and unsuccessful courtships by large and small males were recorded by high-speed videos and analyzed through frame-by-frame analysis. Mating success of large and small males was investigated. The effect of male-male competition on mating success was evaluated. Male body size affected both male courtship signals and mating outcomes. Successful males showed wing-borne signals with high frequencies and short interpulse intervals. Wing vibrations displayed by successful large males during copulation attempt had higher frequencies over smaller males and unsuccessful large males. In no-competition conditions, large males achieved higher mating success with respect to smaller ones. Allowing large and small males to compete for a female, large males achieve more mating success over smaller ones. Mate choice by females may be based on selection of the larger males, able to produce high-frequency wing vibrations. Such traits may be indicative of "good genes," which under sexual selection could means good social-interaction genes, or a good competitive manipulator of conspecifics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Benelli
- Insect Behaviour Group, Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Elisa Donati
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Donato Romano
- Insect Behaviour Group, Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giacomo Ragni
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Gabriella Bonsignori
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Cesare Stefanini
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Angelo Canale
- Insect Behaviour Group, Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhu B, Wang J, Zhao L, Sun Z, Brauth SE, Tang Y, Cui J. Bigger Is Not Always Better: Females Prefer Males of Mean Body Size in Philautus odontotarsus. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149879. [PMID: 26901766 PMCID: PMC4762700 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Most species are believed to evolve larger body sizes over evolutionary time. Previous studies have suggested that sexual selection, through male-male competition and female choice, favors larger males. However, there is little evidence of selection against large size. The female serrate-legged small treefrogs (Philautus odontotarsus) must carry passive males from leks to breeding grounds over relatively long distances after amplexus to find a suitable place to lay eggs. The costs of large male size may therefore decrease mating success due to reduced agility and/or higher energy requirements. Thus, we hypothesized that selection would not favor larger males in P. odontotarsus. Females can assess male body size on the basis of the dominant frequency of male calls in frogs. To assess female P. odontotarsus preferences for a potential mate's body size, male calls of high, average and low dominant frequency were played back to the females in phonotaxis experiments. Results showed that most females prefer the advertisement call with average dominant frequency. In addition, we compared the body mass distribution of amplectant males with that of single males in nature. The body masses of amplectant males are more narrowly distributed in the intermediate range than that of single males. The phonotaxis results and the data of actual female preferences in the field show that females strongly prefer potential mates of mean body sizes, consistent with the view that, in this species at least, larger males are not always perceived as better by females. In the present study, P. odontotarsus provides an example of an amphibian species in which large size does not have an advantage in mating success for males. Instead, our results provide evidences that stabilizing selection favors the optimal intermediate size of males.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bicheng Zhu
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jichao Wang
- Department of Biology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Longhui Zhao
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhixin Sun
- Department of Biology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Steven E. Brauth
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States of America
| | - Yezhong Tang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jianguo Cui
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gress B, Starmer W, Virgen M, Agu A, Attila K, Bazluke E, Chubb L, Durantini A, Goldsmith J, Hui B, Karimova M, Macey E, Macri M, Mongeon E, Monka N, Pence J, Perdomo S, Pratt J, Ruda D, Szkodzinski J, Williamson N, Pitnick S. Stepping off the pasture: evidence of widespread alternative male mating tactics in the yellow dung fly. BEHAVIOUR 2016. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Geoff Parker’s investigations of the yellow dung fly mating system revitalized interest in sexual selection theory, sparked development of sperm competition and sexual conflict theories, and stimulated use of this species as an important model system. Numerous studies across widespread populations have demonstrated large-male advantages in competition contests occurring on dung in cow pastures; however, recent work suggests that smaller males adopt an alternative mating tactic by avoiding dung and instead copulating with females at foraging sites. Though this finding has the potential to expand our understanding of sexual selection in yellow dung flies, such behavior has to date been documented at only one field site, raising the possibility that this phenomenon is highly localized. Here, we report the expression of size-dependent alternative mating tactics across three discrete populations. These findings provide a cautionary tale for researchers limiting their attention to aggregation sites where study organisms are most conveniently encountered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian E. Gress
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - William T. Starmer
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Maria A. Virgen
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Abuchi Agu
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Kossi A. Attila
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | | | - Lindsey A. Chubb
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | | | - Jake Goldsmith
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Benjamin M. Hui
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Malika Karimova
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Erika S. Macey
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Michael R. Macri
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Emily N. Mongeon
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Neal J. Monka
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Jennifer M. Pence
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | | | - Julia M. Pratt
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | - Danielle E. Ruda
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| | | | | | - Scott Pitnick
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Croshaw D, Pechmann J. Size does not matter for male Marbled Salamanders (Ambystoma opacum). CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the phenotypic attributes that contribute to variance in mating and reproductive success is crucial in the study of evolution by sexual selection. In many animals, body size is an important trait because larger individuals enjoy greater fitness due to the ability to secure more mates and produce more offspring. Among males, this outcome is largely mediated by greater success in competition with rival males and (or) advantages in attractiveness to females. Here we tested the hypothesis that large male Marbled Salamanders (Ambystoma opacum (Gravenhorst, 1807)) mate with more females and produce more offspring than small males. In experimental breeding groups, we included males chosen specifically to represent a range of sizes. After gravid females mated and nested freely, we collected egg clutches and genotyped all adults and samples of hatchlings with highly variable microsatellite markers to assign paternity. Size had little effect on male mating and reproductive success. Breeding males were not bigger than nonbreeding males, mates of polyandrous females were not smaller than those of monogamous females, and there was no evidence for positive assortative mating by size. Although body size did not matter for male Marbled Salamanders, we documented considerable fitness variation and discuss alternative traits that could be undergoing sexual selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D.A. Croshaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA; Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, PO Drawer E, Aiken, SC 29802, USA
| | - J.H.K. Pechmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC 28723, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Stage- and sex-specific heat tolerance in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria. J Therm Biol 2014; 46:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|