1
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Thomas J, Gorb SN, Büscher TH. Comparative analysis of the ultrastructure and adhesive secretion pathways of different smooth attachment pads of the stick insect Medauroidea extradentata (Phasmatodea). BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 15:612-630. [PMID: 38887530 PMCID: PMC11181264 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.15.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The mechanism by which insects achieve attachment and locomotion across diverse substrates has long intrigued scientists, prompting extensive research on the functional morphology of attachment pads. In stick insects, attachment and locomotion are facilitated by two distinct types of smooth cuticular attachment pads: the primary adhesion force-generating arolium and the friction force-generating euplantulae. They are both supported by an adhesive secretion delivered into the interspace between the attachment pads and the substrate. In this study, we analysed and compared internal morphology, material composition and ultrastructure, as well as the transportation pathways in both adhesive organs in the stick insect Medauroidea extradentata using scanning electron microscopy, micro-computed tomography, light microscopy, and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our observations revealed structural differences between both attachment pads, reflecting their distinct functionality. Furthermore, our results delineate a potential pathway for adhesive secretions, originating from exocrine epidermal cells and traversing various layers before reaching the surface. Within the attachment pad, the fluid may influence the viscoelastic properties of the pad and control the attachment/detachment process. Understanding the material composition of attachment pads and the distribution process of the adhesive secretion can potentially aid in the development of more effective artificial attachment systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Thomas
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Thies H Büscher
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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2
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Matsumura Y, Lima SP, Rafael JA, Câmara JT, Beutel RG, Gorb SN. Distal leg structures of Zoraptera - did the loss of adhesive devices curb the chance of diversification? ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2022; 68:101164. [PMID: 35468454 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2022.101164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The distal leg structures of Zoraptera are documented and discussed with respect to their functional morphology and evolutionary aspects. We investigated eight species using scanning electron microscopy. We analyzed material compositions of the tarsus in three representative species using confocal laser scanning microscopy. When possible, we included both sexes, wing morphs, and nymphs and compared the structures among them. The distal leg structure is unusually uniform across zorapterans regardless of the sex, morphs, and developmental stages. The observed features combine simplification with innovation. The former is likely partially correlated with cryptic microhabitats and miniaturization. Innovation includes a protibial cleaning organ. This is very likely an autapomorphy of Zoraptera. The tarsi are composed of two tarsomeres covered with setae. The pretarsus distally bears an unguitractor plate and well-sclerotized claws. The tarsomeres appear less-sclerotized than the covering setae. The articulation between the basitarsus and tarsomere 2 is hinge-like, implying that tarsomere 2 moves only mediolaterally. The simplified and specialized tarsal morphology is likely suitable for the typical zorapteran microhabitat, under bark. However, the irreversible complete loss of adhesive devices prevented zorapterans to make use of a broader spectrum of environments and was presumably one reason for the species paucity of the group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsumura
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany; General and Systematic Zoology, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Sheila P Lima
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Brazil
| | - José A Rafael
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Brazil
| | | | - Rolf G Beutel
- Entomology Group, Institut für Zoologie und Evolutionsforschung, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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3
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Büscher TH, Gorb SN. Physical constraints lead to parallel evolution of micro- and nanostructures of animal adhesive pads: a review. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 12:725-743. [PMID: 34354900 PMCID: PMC8290099 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.12.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Adhesive pads are functional systems with specific micro- and nanostructures which evolved as a response to specific environmental conditions and therefore exhibit convergent traits. The functional constraints that shape systems for the attachment to a surface are general requirements. Different strategies to solve similar problems often follow similar physical principles, hence, the morphology of attachment devices is affected by physical constraints. This resulted in two main types of attachment devices in animals: hairy and smooth. They differ in morphology and ultrastructure but achieve mechanical adaptation to substrates with different roughness and maximise the actual contact area with them. Species-specific environmental surface conditions resulted in different solutions for the specific ecological surroundings of different animals. As the conditions are similar in discrete environments unrelated to the group of animals, the micro- and nanostructural adaptations of the attachment systems of different animal groups reveal similar mechanisms. Consequently, similar attachment organs evolved in a convergent manner and different attachment solutions can occur within closely related lineages. In this review, we present a summary of the literature on structural and functional principles of attachment pads with a special focus on insects, describe micro- and nanostructures, surface patterns, origin of different pads and their evolution, discuss the material properties (elasticity, viscoelasticity, adhesion, friction) and basic physical forces contributing to adhesion, show the influence of different factors, such as substrate roughness and pad stiffness, on contact forces, and review the chemical composition of pad fluids, which is an important component of an adhesive function. Attachment systems are omnipresent in animals. We show parallel evolution of attachment structures on micro- and nanoscales at different phylogenetic levels, focus on insects as the largest animal group on earth, and subsequently zoom into the attachment pads of the stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea) to explore convergent evolution of attachment pads at even smaller scales. Since convergent events might be potentially interesting for engineers as a kind of optimal solution by nature, the biomimetic implications of the discussed results are briefly presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies H Büscher
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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4
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Büscher TH, Gorb SN. Complementary effect of attachment devices in stick insects (Phasmatodea). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.209833. [PMID: 31727762 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.209833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Stick insects are well adapted in their locomotion to various surfaces and topographies of natural substrates. Single pad measurements characterised the pretarsal arolia of these insects as shear-sensitive adhesive pads and the tarsal euplantulae as load-sensitive friction pads. Different attachment microstructures on the euplantulae reveal an adaptation of smooth euplantulae to smooth surfaces and nubby eupantulae to a broader range of surface roughness. However, how different attachment pads and claws work in concert and how strong the contribution of different structures is to the overall attachment performance remains unclear. We therefore assessed combinatory effects in the attachment system of two stick insect species with different types of euplantular microstructures by analysing their usage in various posture situations and the performance on different levels of substrate roughness. For comparison, we provide attachment force data of the whole attachment system. The combination of claws, arolia and euplantulae provides mechanical interlocking on rough surfaces, adhesion and friction on smooth surfaces in different directions, and facilitates attachment on different inclines and on a broad range of surface roughness, with the least performance in the range 0.3-1.0 µm. On smooth surfaces, stick insects use arolia always, but employ euplantulae if the body weight can generate load on them (upright, wall). On structured surfaces, claws enable mechanical interlocking at roughnesses higher than 12 µm. On less-structured surfaces, the attachment strength depends on the use of pads and, corroborating earlier studies, favours smooth pads on smooth surfaces, but nubby euplantulae on micro-rough surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies H Büscher
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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5
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Federle W, Labonte D. Dynamic biological adhesion: mechanisms for controlling attachment during locomotion. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20190199. [PMID: 31495309 PMCID: PMC6745483 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid control of surface attachment is a key feature of natural adhesive systems used for locomotion, and a property highly desirable for man-made adhesives. Here, we describe the challenges of adhesion control and the timescales involved across diverse biological attachment systems and different adhesive mechanisms. The most widespread control principle for dynamic surface attachment in climbing animals is that adhesion is 'shear-sensitive' (directional): pulling adhesive pads towards the body results in strong attachment, whereas pushing them away from it leads to easy detachment, providing a rapid mechanical 'switch'. Shear-sensitivity is based on changes of contact area and adhesive strength, which in turn arise from non-adhesive default positions, the mechanics of peeling, pad sliding, and the targeted storage and controlled release of elastic strain energy. The control of adhesion via shear forces is deeply integrated with the climbing animals' anatomy and locomotion, and involves both active neuromuscular control, and rapid passive responses of sophisticated mechanical systems. The resulting dynamic adhesive systems are robust, reliable, versatile and nevertheless remarkably simple. This article is part of the theme issue 'Transdisciplinary approaches to the study of adhesion and adhesives in biological systems'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Federle
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Labonte
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College, London, UK
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6
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Chen S, Deng SW, Shih C, Zhang WW, Zhang P, Ren D, Zhu YN, Gao TP. The earliest Timematids in Burmese amber reveal diverse tarsal pads of stick insects in the mid-Cretaceous. INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 26:945-957. [PMID: 29700985 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Many extant insects have developed pad structures, euplantulae or arolia on their tarsi to increase friction or enhance adhesion for better mobility. Many polyneopteran insects with euplantulae, for example, Grylloblattodea, Mantophasmatodea and Orthoptera, have been described from the Mesozoic. However, the origin and evolution of stick insects' euplantulae are poorly understood due to rare fossil records. Here, we report the earliest fossil records of Timematodea hitherto, Tumefactipes prolongates gen. et sp. nov. and Granosicorpes lirates gen. et sp. nov., based on three specimens from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Specimens of Tumefactipes prolongates gen. et sp. nov. have extremely specialized and expanded euplantulae on their tarsomere II. These new findings are the first known and the earliest fossil records about euplantula structure within Phasmatodea, demonstrating the diversity of euplantulae in Polyneoptera during the Mesozoic. Such tarsal pads might have increased friction and helped these mid-Cretaceous stick insects to climb more firmly on various surfaces, such as broad leaves, wetted tree branches or ground. These specimens provide more morphological data for us to understand the relationships of Timematodea, Euphasmatodea, Orthoptera and Embioptera, suggesting that Timematodea might be monophyletic with Euphasmatodea rather than Embioptera and Phasmatodea should have a closer relationship with Orthoptera rather than Embioptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Wo Deng
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chungkun Shih
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Peng Zhang
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Ren
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yi-Ning Zhu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Tai-Ping Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
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7
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Büscher TH, Kryuchkov M, Katanaev VL, Gorb SN. Versatility of Turing patterns potentiates rapid evolution in tarsal attachment microstructures of stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea). J R Soc Interface 2019; 15:rsif.2018.0281. [PMID: 29925583 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In its evolution, the diverse group of stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea) has undergone a rapid radiation. These insects evolved specialized structures to adhere to different surfaces typical for their specific ecological environments. The cuticle of their tarsal attachment pads (euplantulae) is known to possess a high diversity of attachment microstructures (AMS) which are suggested to reflect ecological specializations of different groups within phasmids. However, the origin of these microstructures and their developmental background remain largely unknown. Here, based on the detailed scanning electron microscopy study of pad surfaces, we present a theoretical approach to mathematically model an outstanding diversity of phasmid AMS using the reaction-diffusion model by Alan Turing. In general, this model explains pattern formation in nature. For the first time, we were able to identify eight principal patterns and simulate the transitions among these. In addition, intermediate transitional patterns were predicted by the model. The ease of transformation suggests a high adaptability of the microstructures that might explain the rapid evolution of pad characters. We additionally discuss the functional morphology of the different microstructures and their assumed advantages in the context of the ecological background of species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies H Büscher
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Mikhail Kryuchkov
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vladimir L Katanaev
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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8
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Büsse S, Büscher TH, Heepe L, Gorb SN. Adaptations of dragonfly larvae and their exuviae (Insecta: Odonata), attachment devices and their crucial role during emergence. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 117:103914. [PMID: 31323235 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Moulting, especially in 'hemimetabolous' insects that emerge upside down, is a crucial moment in their live. Losing their attachment during this situation can be fatal for survival. We here studied the emergence of dragonfly adults, describe structures involved in larval attachment to the substrate, and biomechanically test the pull-off forces of exuviae to natural substrates. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to describe both morphology and material composition of the leg cuticle of Anax imperator larvae. The results show that the combination of morphological and behavioral adaptations provides reliable anchorage of exuviae to the substrates. We determined a safety factor of 14, and demonstrated that this staggered safety system experiencing several unlocking and relocking events withstand multiple disturbances before the entire exuvia is completely detaches. This furthers our understanding of interlocking and anchorage of insects in general and may allow for future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Büsse
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Thies H Büscher
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Lars Heepe
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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9
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Meng F, Liu Q, Wang X, Tan D, Xue L, Barnes WJP. Tree frog adhesion biomimetics: opportunities for the development of new, smart adhesives that adhere under wet conditions. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2019; 377:20190131. [PMID: 31177956 PMCID: PMC6562351 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2019.0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Enlarged adhesive toe pads on the tip of each digit allow tree frogs to climb smooth vertical and overhanging surfaces, and are effective in generating reversible adhesion under both dry and wet conditions. In this review, we discuss the complexities of the structure of tree frog toe pads in relation to their function and review their biomimetic potential. Of particular importance are the (largely) hexagonal epithelial cells surrounded by deep channels that cover the surface of each toe pad and the array of nanopillars on their surface. Fluid secreted by the pads covers the surface of each pad, so the pads adhere by wet adhesion, involving both capillarity and viscosity-dependent forces. The fabrication and testing of toe pad mimics are challenging, but valuable both for testing hypotheses concerning tree frog toe pad function and for developing toe pad mimics. Initial mimics involved the fabrication of hexagonal pillars mimicking the toe pad epithelial structure. More recent ones additionally replicate the nanostructures on their surface. Finally we describe some of the biomimetic applications that have been developed from toe pad mimics, which include both bioinspired adhesives and friction-generating devices. This article is part of the theme issue 'Bioinspired materials and surfaces for green science and technology (part 2)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fandong Meng
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, South Donghu Road 8, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Quan Liu
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, South Donghu Road 8, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Wang
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, South Donghu Road 8, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Tan
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, South Donghu Road 8, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Longjian Xue
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, South Donghu Road 8, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - W. Jon. P. Barnes
- Centre for Cell Engineering, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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10
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Roell T, Campos LA. Phylogeny of Ochlerini (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae: Discocephalinae) and the evolution of the apical tarsomere in hind legs. Zool J Linn Soc 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zly073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Talita Roell
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Biologia Animal & Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Luiz Alexandre Campos
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Biologia Animal & Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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11
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Büscher TH, Buckley TR, Grohmann C, Gorb SN, Bradler S. The Evolution of Tarsal Adhesive Microstructures in Stick and Leaf Insects (Phasmatodea). Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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12
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Sarmiento-Ponce EJ, Sutcliffe MPF, Hedwig B. Substrate texture affects female cricket walking response to male calling song. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:172334. [PMID: 29657819 PMCID: PMC5882743 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.172334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Field crickets are extensively used as a model organism to study female phonotactic walking behaviour, i.e. their attraction to the male calling song. Laboratory-based phonotaxis experiments generally rely on arena or trackball-based settings; however, no attention has been paid to the effect of substrate texture on the response. Here, we tested phonotaxis in female Gryllus bimaculatus, walking on trackballs machined from methyl-methacrylate foam with different cell sizes. Surface height variations of the trackballs, due to the cellular composition of the material, were measured with profilometry and characterized as smooth, medium or rough, with roughness amplitudes of 7.3, 16 and 180 µm. Female phonotaxis was best on a rough and medium trackball surface, a smooth surface resulted in a significant lower phonotactic response. Claws of the cricket foot were crucial for effective walking. Females insert their claws into the surface pores to allow mechanical interlocking with the substrate texture and a high degree of attachment, which cannot be established on smooth surfaces. These findings provide insight to the biomechanical basis of insect walking and may inform behavioural studies that the surface texture on which walking insects are tested is crucial for the resulting behavioural response.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. J. Sarmiento-Ponce
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - M. P. F. Sutcliffe
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - B. Hedwig
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
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13
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Clemente CJ, Goetzke HH, Bullock JMR, Sutton GP, Burrows M, Federle W. Jumping without slipping: leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) possess special tarsal structures for jumping from smooth surfaces. J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0022. [PMID: 28468924 PMCID: PMC5454290 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many hemipteran bugs can jump explosively from plant substrates, which can be very smooth. We therefore analysed the jumping performance of froghoppers (Philaenus spumarius, Aphrophoridae) and leafhoppers (Aphrodes bicinctus/makarovi, Cicadellidae) taking off from smooth (glass) and rough (sandpaper, 30 µm asperity size) surfaces. On glass, the propulsive hind legs of Philaenus froghoppers slipped, resulting in uncontrolled jumps with a fast forward spin, a steeper angle and only a quarter of the velocity compared with jumps from rough surfaces. By contrast, Aphrodes leafhoppers took off without their propulsive hind legs slipping, and reached low take-off angles and high velocities on both substrates. This difference in jumping ability from smooth surfaces can be explained not only by the lower acceleration of the long-legged leafhoppers, but also by the presence of 2–9 soft pad-like structures (platellae) on their hind tarsi, which are absent in froghoppers. High-speed videos of jumping showed that platellae contact the surface briefly (approx. 3 ms) during the acceleration phase. Friction force measurements on individual hind tarsi on glass revealed that at low sliding speeds, both pushing and pulling forces were small, and insufficient to explain the recorded jumps. Only when the tarsi were pushed with higher velocities did the contact area of the platellae increase markedly, and high friction forces were produced, consistent with the observed jumps. Our findings show that leafhoppers have special adhesive footpads for jumping from smooth surfaces, which achieve firm grip and rapid control of attachment/detachment by combining anisotropic friction with velocity dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - James M R Bullock
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
| | - Malcolm Burrows
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Walter Federle
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
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14
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Yanoviak SP, Silveri C, Stark AY, Van Stan JT, Levia DF. Surface roughness affects the running speed of tropical canopy ants. Biotropica 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P. Yanoviak
- Department of Biology University of Louisville 139 Life Sciences Building Louisville KY 40292 U.S.A
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado Postal 0843‐03092 Panamá Republic of Panama
| | - Cheryl Silveri
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville AR 72701 U.S.A
| | - Alyssa Y. Stark
- Department of Biology University of Louisville 139 Life Sciences Building Louisville KY 40292 U.S.A
| | - John T. Van Stan
- Department of Geology and Geography Georgia Southern University Statesboro GA 30460 U.S.A
| | - Delphis F. Levia
- Departments of Geography and Plant & Soil Sciences University of Delaware Newark DE 19716 U.S.A
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15
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Extreme positive allometry of animal adhesive pads and the size limits of adhesion-based climbing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:1297-302. [PMID: 26787862 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519459113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Organismal functions are size-dependent whenever body surfaces supply body volumes. Larger organisms can develop strongly folded internal surfaces for enhanced diffusion, but in many cases areas cannot be folded so that their enlargement is constrained by anatomy, presenting a problem for larger animals. Here, we study the allometry of adhesive pad area in 225 climbing animal species, covering more than seven orders of magnitude in weight. Across all taxa, adhesive pad area showed extreme positive allometry and scaled with weight, implying a 200-fold increase of relative pad area from mites to geckos. However, allometric scaling coefficients for pad area systematically decreased with taxonomic level and were close to isometry when evolutionary history was accounted for, indicating that the substantial anatomical changes required to achieve this increase in relative pad area are limited by phylogenetic constraints. Using a comparative phylogenetic approach, we found that the departure from isometry is almost exclusively caused by large differences in size-corrected pad area between arthropods and vertebrates. To mitigate the expected decrease of weight-specific adhesion within closely related taxa where pad area scaled close to isometry, data for several taxa suggest that the pads' adhesive strength increased for larger animals. The combination of adjustments in relative pad area for distantly related taxa and changes in adhesive strength for closely related groups helps explain how climbing with adhesive pads has evolved in animals varying over seven orders of magnitude in body weight. Our results illustrate the size limits of adhesion-based climbing, with profound implications for large-scale bio-inspired adhesives.
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