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Varija
Raghu S, Thamankar R. A Comparative Study of Crystallography and Defect Structure of Corneal Nipple Array in Daphnis nerii Moth and Papilio polytes Butterfly Eye. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:23662-23671. [PMID: 32984686 PMCID: PMC7512438 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Moth and butterfly ommatidial nanostructures have been extensively studied for their anti-reflective properties. Especially, from the point of view of sub-wavelength anti-reflection phenomena, the moth eye structures are the archetype example. Here, a comparative analysis of corneal nipples in moth eye (both Male and Female) and butterfly eye (both Male and Female) is given. The surface of moth(Male and Female) and butterfly(Male and Female) eye is defined with regularly arranged hexagonal facets filled with corneal nipples. A detailed analysis using high-resolution scanning electron microscopy images show the intricate hexagonal arrangement of corneal nipples within the individual hexagonal facet. Individual nipples in moth are circular with an average diameter of about 140/165 nm (Male/Female) and average internipple separation of 165 nm. The moth eye show the ordered arrangement of the corneal nipples and the butterfly eye (Male/Female) show an even more complex arrangement of the nipples. Structurally, the corneal nipples in both male and female butterflies are not circular but are polygons with 5, 6, and 7 sides. The average center-to-center separation in the butterfly(Male/Female) is about 260 nm/204 nm, respectively. We find that these corneal nipples are organized into much more dense hexagonal packing with the internipple (edge-to-edge) separation ranging from 20 to 25 nm. Each hexagonal facet is divided into multiple grains separated by boundaries spanning one or two crystallographic defects. These defects are seen in both moth and butterfly. These are typical 5-coordinated and 7-coordinated defect sites typical for a solid-state material with the hexagonal atomic arrangement. Even though the isolated defects are a rarity, interwoven (7-5) defects form a grain boundary between perfectly ordered grains. These defects introduce a low-angle dislocation, and a detailed analysis of the defects is done. The butterfly eye (Male/Female) is defined with extremely high-density corneal nipple with no apparent grains. Each corneal nipple is a polygon with "n" sides (n = 5, 6, and 7). While the 5- and 7-coordinated defects exist, they do not initiate a grain rotation as seen in the moth eyes. To find out the similarity and the difference in the reflectivity of these nanostructured surfaces, we used the effective medium theory and calculated the reflectivity in moth and butterfly eyes. From this simple analysis, we find that females have better anti-reflective properties compared to the males in both moth and butterfly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamprasad Varija
Raghu
- Neurogenetics
Lab, Dept of Applied Zoology, Mangalore
University, Mangalagangothri, Karnataka, India 574199
| | - R. Thamankar
- Department
of Physics, School of Advanced Sciences, VIT, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India 632014
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Reverse and forward engineering of Drosophila corneal nanocoatings. Nature 2020; 585:383-389. [PMID: 32939070 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2707-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Insect eyes have an anti-reflective coating, owing to nanostructures on the corneal surface creating a gradient of refractive index between that of air and that of the lens material1,2. These nanocoatings have also been shown to provide anti-adhesive functionality3. The morphology of corneal nanocoatings are very diverse in arthropods, with nipple-like structures that can be organized into arrays or fused into ridge-like structures4. This diversity can be attributed to a reaction-diffusion mechanism4 and patterning principles developed by Alan Turing5, which have applications in numerous biological settings6. The nanocoatings on insect corneas are one example of such Turing patterns, and the first known example of nanoscale Turing patterns4. Here we demonstrate a clear link between the morphology and function of the nanocoatings on Drosophila corneas. We find that nanocoatings that consist of individual protrusions have better anti-reflective properties, whereas partially merged structures have better anti-adhesion properties. We use biochemical analysis and genetic modification techniques to reverse engineer the protein Retinin and corneal waxes as the building blocks of the nanostructures. In the context of Turing patterns, these building blocks fulfil the roles of activator and inhibitor, respectively. We then establish low-cost production of Retinin, and mix this synthetic protein with waxes to forward engineer various artificial nanocoatings with insect-like morphology and anti-adhesive or anti-reflective function. Our combined reverse- and forward-engineering approach thus provides a way to economically produce functional nanostructured coatings from biodegradable materials.
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Arthropod Corneal Nanocoatings: Diversity, Mechanisms, and Functions. BIOLOGICALLY-INSPIRED SYSTEMS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-74144-4_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Minami R, Sato C, Yamahama Y, Kubo H, Hariyama T, Kimura KI. An RNAi Screen for Genes Involved in Nanoscale Protrusion Formation on Corneal Lens in Drosophila melanogaster. Zoolog Sci 2016; 33:583-591. [PMID: 27927092 DOI: 10.2108/zs160105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The "moth-eye" structure, which is observed on the surface of corneal lens in several insects, supports anti-reflective and self-cleaning functions due to nanoscale protrusions known as corneal nipples. Although the morphology and function of the "moth-eye" structure, are relatively well studied, the mechanism of protrusion formation from cell-secreted substances is unknown. In Drosophila melanogaster, a compound eye consists of approximately 800 facets, the surface of which is formed by the corneal lens with nanoscale protrusions. In the present study, we sought to identify genes involved in "moth-eye" structure, formation in order to elucidate the developmental mechanism of the protrusions in Drosophila. We re-examined the aberrant patterns in classical glossy-eye mutants by scanning electron microscope and classified the aberrant patterns into groups. Next, we screened genes encoding putative structural cuticular proteins and genes involved in cuticular formation using eye specific RNAi silencing methods combined with the Gal4/UAS expression system. We identified 12 of 100 candidate genes, such as cuticular proteins family genes (Cuticular protein 23B and Cuticular protein 49Ah), cuticle secretion-related genes (Syntaxin 1A and Sec61 ββ subunit), ecdysone signaling and biosynthesis-related genes (Ecdysone receptor, Blimp-1, and shroud), and genes involved in cell polarity/cell architecture (Actin 5C, shotgun, armadillo, discs large1, and coracle). Although some of the genes we identified may affect corneal protrusion formation indirectly through general patterning defects in eye formation, these initial findings have encouraged us to more systematically explore the precise mechanisms underlying the formation of nanoscale protrusions in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryunosuke Minami
- 1 Laboratory of Biology, Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo Campus, Sapporo 002-8502, Japan
| | - Chiaki Sato
- 1 Laboratory of Biology, Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo Campus, Sapporo 002-8502, Japan
| | - Yumi Yamahama
- 2 Department of Biology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan
| | - Hideo Kubo
- 3 Department of Mathematics, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Takahiko Hariyama
- 2 Department of Biology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Kimura
- 1 Laboratory of Biology, Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo Campus, Sapporo 002-8502, Japan
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Lee KC, Yu Q, Erb U. Mesostructure of Ordered Corneal Nano-nipple Arrays: The Role of 5-7 Coordination Defects. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28342. [PMID: 27329065 PMCID: PMC4916435 DOI: 10.1038/srep28342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Corneal nano-nipple structures consisting of hexagonally arranged protrusions with diameters around 200 nm have long been known for their antireflection capability and have served as biological blueprint for solar cell, optical lens and other surface designs. However, little is known about the global arrangement of these nipples on the ommatidial surface and their growth during the eye development. This study provides new insights based on the analysis of nano-nipple arrangements on the mesoscale across entire ommatidia, which has never been done before. The most important feature in the nipple structures are topological 5- and 7-fold coordination defects, which align to form dislocations and interconnected networks of grain boundaries that divide the ommatidia into crystalline domains in different orientations. Furthermore, the domain size distribution might be log-normal, and the domains demonstrate no preference in crystal orientation. Both observations suggest that the nipple growth process may be similar to the nucleation and growth mechanisms during the formation of other crystal structures. Our results are also consistent with the most recently proposed Turing-type reaction-diffusion process. In fact, we were able to produce the key structural characteristics of the nipple arrangements using Turing analysis from the nucleation to the final structure development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken C Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St. Toronto, Ontario, M5S3E4, Canada
| | - Qi Yu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St. Toronto, Ontario, M5S3E4, Canada
| | - Uwe Erb
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St. Toronto, Ontario, M5S3E4, Canada
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Lee KC, Erb U. Remarkable crystal and defect structures in butterfly eye nano-nipple arrays. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2015; 44:587-594. [PMID: 26342423 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The corneal nipple structures on the eyes of two nymphalid butterfly species (Nymphalis antiopa and Polygonia interrogationis) are analyzed in terms of nipple arrangements and associated defects. The nipple arrays in both species have close-packed hexagonal lattices with lattice parameters of about 200 nm. The most abundant defects observed are 5-7 coordination defects that generate dislocations, dislocation-type low angle and structural unit-like high angle grain boundaries, as well as closed-loop defects. These disordered structures are compared with imperfections found in other 2D and 3D crystal structures, and it is concluded that the defects in the nipple arrays are likely not due to random growth accidents. Instead, they could be the result of geometric constraints due to eye curvature or serve a yet undiscovered purpose in the optical properties of these eyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken C Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St. Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S3E4
| | - Uwe Erb
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St. Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S3E4.
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Meyer-Rochow VB. Compound eyes of insects and crustaceans: Some examples that show there is still a lot of work left to be done. INSECT SCIENCE 2015; 22:461-481. [PMID: 24574199 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Similarities and differences between the 2 main kinds of compound eye (apposition and superposition) are briefly explained before several promising topics for research on compound eyes are being introduced. Research on the embryology and molecular control of the development of the insect clear-zone eye with superposition optics is one of the suggestions, because almost all of the developmental work on insect eyes in the past has focused on eyes with apposition optics. Age- and habitat-related ultrastructural studies of the retinal organization are another suggestion and the deer cad Lipoptena cervi, which has an aerial phase during which it is winged followed by a several months long parasitic phase during which it is wingless, is mentioned as a candidate species. Sexual dimorphism expressing itself in many species as a difference in eye structure and function provides another promising field for compound eye researchers and so is a focus on compound eye miniaturization in very small insects, especially those that are aquatic and belong to species, in which clear-zone eyes are diagnostic or are tiny insects that are not aquatic, but belong to taxa like the Diptera for instance, in which open rather than closed rhabdoms are the rule. Structures like interommatidial hairs and glands as well as corneal microridges are yet another field that could yield interesting results and in the past has received insufficient consideration. Finally, the dearth of information on distance vision and depth perception is mentioned and a plea is made to examine the photic environment inside the foam shelters of spittle bugs, chrysales of pupae and other structures shielding insects and crustaceans.
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Dewan R, Fischer S, Meyer-Rochow VB, Özdemir Y, Hamraz S, Knipp D. Studying nanostructured nipple arrays of moth eye facets helps to design better thin film solar cells. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2012; 7:016003. [PMID: 22155981 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3182/7/1/016003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Nipples on the surface of moth eye facets exhibit almost perfect broadband anti-reflection properties. We have studied the facet surface micro-protuberances, known as corneal nipples, of the chestnut leafminer moth Cameraria ohridella by atomic force microscopy, and simulated the optics of the nipple arrays by three-dimensional electromagnetic simulation. The influence of the dimensions and shapes of the nipples on the optics was studied. In particular, the shape of the nipples has a major influence on the anti-reflection properties. Furthermore, we transferred the structure of the almost perfect broadband anti-reflection coatings to amorphous silicon thin film solar cells. The coating that imitates the moth-eye array allows for an increase of the short circuit current and conversion efficiency of more than 40%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Dewan
- Research Centre for Functional Materials and Nanomolecular Science, Electronic Devices and Nanophotonics Laboratory, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
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Kryuchkov M, Katanaev VL, Enin GA, Sergeev A, Timchenko AA, Serdyuk IN. Analysis of micro- and nano-structures of the corneal surface of Drosophila and its mutants by atomic force microscopy and optical diffraction. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22237. [PMID: 21811578 PMCID: PMC3141020 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism instrumental for numerous biological studies. The compound eye of this insect consists of some eight hundred individual ommatidia or facets, ca. 15 µm in cross-section. Each ommatidium contains eighteen cells including four cone cells secreting the lens material (cornea). High-resolution imaging of the cornea of different insects has demonstrated that each lens is covered by the nipple arrays - small outgrowths of ca. 200 nm in diameter. Here we for the first time utilize atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate nipple arrays of the Drosophila lens, achieving an unprecedented visualization of the architecture of these nanostructures. We find by Fourier analysis that the nipple arrays of Drosophila are disordered, and that the seemingly ordered appearance is a consequence of dense packing of the nipples. In contrast, Fourier analysis confirms the visibly ordered nature of the eye microstructures - the individual lenses. This is different in the frizzled mutants of Drosophila, where both Fourier analysis and optical imaging detect disorder in lens packing. AFM reveals intercalations of the lens material between individual lenses in frizzled mutants, providing explanation for this disorder. In contrast, nanostructures of the mutant lens show the same organization as in wild-type flies. Thus, frizzled mutants display abnormal organization of the corneal micro-, but not nano-structures. At the same time, nipples of the mutant flies are shorter than those of the wild-type. We also analyze corneal surface of glossy-appearing eyes overexpressing Wingless - the lipoprotein ligand of Frizzled receptors, and find the catastrophic aberration in nipple arrays, providing experimental evidence in favor of the major anti-reflective function of these insect eye nanostructures. The combination of the easily tractable genetic model organism and robust AFM analysis represents a novel methodology to analyze development and architecture of these surface formations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail Kryuchkov
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir L. Katanaev
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (VLK); (INS)
| | - Gennadiy A. Enin
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
| | - Anton Sergeev
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander A. Timchenko
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
| | - Igor N. Serdyuk
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russian Federation
- * E-mail: (VLK); (INS)
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Stavenga DG, Foletti S, Palasantzas G, Arikawa K. Light on the moth-eye corneal nipple array of butterflies. Proc Biol Sci 2006; 273:661-7. [PMID: 16608684 PMCID: PMC1560070 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The outer surface of the facet lenses in the compound eyes of moths consists of an array of excessive cuticular protuberances, termed corneal nipples. We have investigated the moth-eye corneal nipple array of the facet lenses of 19 diurnal butterfly species by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscope, as well as by optical modelling. The nipples appeared to be arranged in domains with almost crystalline, hexagonal packing. The nipple distances were found to vary only slightly, ranging from about 180 to 240 nm, but the nipple heights varied between 0 (papilionids) and 230 nm (a nymphalid), in good agreement with previous work. The nipples create an interface with a gradient refractive index between that of air and the facet lens material, because their distance is distinctly smaller than the wavelength of light. The gradient in the refractive index was deduced from effective medium theory. By dividing the height of the nipple layer into 100 thin slices, an optical multilayer model could be applied to calculate the reflectance of the facet lenses as a function of height, polarization and angle of incidence. The reflectance progressively diminished with increased nipple height. Nipples with a paraboloid shape and height 250 nm, touching each other at the base, virtually completely reduced the reflectance for normally incident light. The calculated dependence of the reflectance on polarization and angle of incidence agreed well with experimental data, underscoring the validity of the modelling. The corneal nipples presumably mainly function to reduce the eye glare of moths that are inactive during the day, so to make them less visible for predators. Moths are probably ancestral to the diurnal butterflies, suggesting that the reduced size of the nipples of most butterfly species indicates a vanishing trait. This effect is extreme in papilionids, which have virtually absent nipples, in line with their highly developed status. A similar evolutionary development can be noticed for the tapetum of the ommatidia of lepidopteran eyes. It is most elaborate in moth-eyes, but strongly reduced in most diurnal butterflies and absent in papilionids.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Stavenga
- Department of Neurobiophysics, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Meyer-Rochow VB, Stringer IA. A system of regular ridges instead of nipples on a compound eye that has to operate near the diffraction limit. Vision Res 1993; 33:2645-7. [PMID: 8296460 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(93)90223-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
A system of regular, radial ridges, spaced approx. 250 nm apart, is reported from the outer corneal surface of the eye of the tiny moth Leucoptera coffeella. Antireflective coatings in larger insects with flatter facets often take the form of corneal nipples. However, evidence is presented that in an insect whose eyes have to operate near the lower diffraction limit and possess strongly convexly-curved corneae a radial arrangement of microridges is just as effective as nipples--and simpler to construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- V B Meyer-Rochow
- Experimental Zoology and Electron Microscopy Unit, University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica
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Meyer‐Rochow VB, Stephan H, Moro SD. Morphological and anatomical observations on the hairy eyes of males and females of the marine amphipoddulichia porrecta(crustacea, amphipoda, podoceridae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1080/11250009109355729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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KLEPAL WALTRAUD. Morphogenesis and Variability of Cuticular Structures in the Genus lbla (Crustacea, Cirripedia). ZOOL SCR 1983. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-6409.1983.tb00556.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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KLEPAL WALTRAUD, KASTNER ROBERTT. Morphology and Differentiation of Non-sensory Cuticular Structures in Mysidacea, Cumacea and Tanaidacea (Crustacea, Peracarida). ZOOL SCR 1980. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-6409.1980.tb00667.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Miller WH. Ocular Optical Filtering. COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF VISION IN INVERTEBRATES 1979. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-66999-6_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Delbecque JP, Hirn M, Delachambre J, De Regg M. Cuticular cycle and molting hormone levels during the metamorphosis of Tenebrio molitor (Insecta Coleoptera). Dev Biol 1978; 64:11-30. [PMID: 658589 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(78)90057-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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17
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Bernhard CG, Gemne G, Seitz G. Optical Properties of the Compound Eye. HANDBOOK OF SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY 1972. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-65340-7_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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