Sucking lice and spiracular transpiration: turning a liability into a benefit and a necessity

Sucking lice feed on blood and therefore ingest more water than they require for maintaining hydration. This water must be excreted but, unlike other blood feeding insects, they do not produce urine but do become dehydrated within hours if unable to feed. Using human clothing lice and head lice, Pediculus humanus ssp, and high sensitivity balances it was shown that recently fed lice lost weight consistently as water ingested with the blood meal was excreted via the respiratory system. If all spiracles were occluded using petroleum jelly, weight/water loss was inhibited. Blocking thoracic spiracles resulted in a slight reduction in the rate of weight loss compared with untreated lice but blocking the abdominal spiracles resulted in an enhanced rate of weight loss. Lice immersed in water did not lose weight but maintained the same weight for several hours, after which they increased in weight as the tissues became turgid, indicating that the insects were able to block water ingress during the period of stability but that after some time the mechanism failed allowing water to enter the lice by osmosis.

Effects of brief chilling and desiccation on ion homeostasis in the central nervous system of the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria

In insects, chilling, anoxia, and dehydration are cues to trigger rapid physiological responses enhancing stress tolerance within minutes. Recent evidence suggests that responses elicited by different cues are mechanistically distinct from each other, though these differences have received little attention. Further, the effects are not well studied in neural tissue. In this study, we examined how brief exposure to desiccation and chilling affect ion homeostatic mechanisms in metathoracic ganglion of the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria. Both desiccation and chilling enhanced resistance to anoxia, though only chilling hastened recovery from anoxic coma. Similarly, only chilling enhanced resistance to pharmacological perturbation of neuronal ion homeostasis. Our results indicate that chilling and desiccation trigger mechanistically distinct responses and, while both may be important for neuronal ion homeostasis, chilling has a larger effect on this tissue. SUMMARY STATEMENT: This is one of few studies to demonstrate the importance of the central nervous system in rapid acclimatory responses in insects.

Dynamics of tracheal compression in the horned passalus beetle

Rhythmic patterns of compression and reinflation of the thin-walled hollow tubes of the insect tracheal system have been observed in a number of insects. These movements may be important for facilitating the transport and exchange of respiratory gases, but observing and characterizing the dynamics of internal physiological systems within live insects can be challenging due to their size and exoskeleton. Using synchrotron X-ray phase-contrast imaging, we observed dynamical behavior in the tracheal system of the beetle, Odontotaenius disjunctus. Similar to observations of tracheal compression in other insects, specific regions of tracheae in the thorax of O. disjunctus exhibit rhythmic collapse and reinflation. During tracheal compression, the opposing sides of a tracheal tube converge, causing the effective diameter of the tube to decrease. However, a unique characteristic of tracheal compression in this species is that certain tracheae collapse and reinflate with a wavelike motion. In the dorsal cephalic tracheae, compression begins anteriorly and continues until the tube is uniformly flattened; reinflation takes place in the reverse direction, starting with the posterior end of the tube and continuing until the tube is fully reinflated. We report the detailed kinematics of this pattern as well as additional observations that show tracheal compression coordinated with spiracle opening and closing. These findings suggest that tracheal compression may function to drive flow within the body, facilitating internal mixing of respiratory gases and ventilation of distal regions of the tracheal system.

Respiratory dynamics of discontinuous gas exchange in the tracheal system of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria

Gas exchange dynamics in insects is of fundamental importance to understanding evolved variation in breathing patterns, such as discontinuous gas exchange cycles (DGCs). Most insects do not rely solely on diffusion for the exchange of respiratory gases but may also make use of respiratory movements (active ventilation) to supplement gas exchange at rest. However, their temporal dynamics have not been widely investigated. Here, intratracheal pressure, VCO2 and body movements of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria were measured simultaneously during the DGC and revealed several important aspects of gas exchange dynamics. First, S. gregaria employs two different ventilatory strategies, one involving dorso-ventral contractions and the other longitudinal telescoping movements. Second, although a true spiracular closed (C)-phase of the DGC could be identified by means of subatmospheric intratracheal pressure recordings, some CO2 continued to be released. Third, strong pumping actions do not necessarily lead to CO2 release and could be used to ensure mixing of gases in the closed tracheal system, or enhance water vapour reabsorption into the haemolymph from fluid-filled tracheole tips by increasing the hydrostatic pressure or forcing fluid into the haemocoel. Finally, this work showed that the C-phase of the DGC can occur at any pressure. These results provide further insights into the mechanistic basis of insect gas exchange.

Pump out the volume--The effect of tracheal and subelytral pressure pulses on convective gas exchange in a dung beetle, Circellium bacchus (Fabricus)

Many flightless beetles like the large apterous dung beetle Circellium bacchus, possess a subelytral cavity (SEC) providing an extra air space below the elytra which connects to the tracheal system (TS) via metathoracic and abdominal spiracles. By measuring subelytral and intratracheal pressure as well as body movements and gas exchange simultaneously in a flow-through setup, we investigated the contribution of convection on Circellium respiratory gas exchange. No constriction phase was observed. TS and SEC pressures were always around atmospheric values. During interburst phase open abdominal spiracles and a leaky SEC led to small CO(2)-peaks on a continuous CO(2) baseline, driven by intermittent positive tracheal pressure peaks in anti-phase with small negative subelytral pressure peaks caused by dorso-ventral tergite action. Spiracle opening was accompanied by two types of body movements. Higher frequency telescoping body movements at the beginning of opening resulted in high amplitude SEC and TS pressure peaks. High frequency tergite movements caused subelytral pressure peaks and led to a saw tooth like CO(2) release pattern in a burst. We propose that during the burst open mesothoracic spiracles increase the compliance of the subelytral cavity allowing big volumes of tracheal air being pulled out by convection.

Extracardiac versus cardiac haemocoelic pulsations in pupae of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.)

Pulsations in mechanical pressure of the pupal haemocoele were investigated by means of simultaneous recording from multiple sensors. It has been determined that cardiac and extracardiac haemocoelic pulsations are each regulated by substantially different and quite independent physiological mechanisms. At the beginning and in the middle of the pupal interecdysial period the anterograde heartbeat and extracardiac pulsations occur in similar, but not identical periods. During the advanced pharate adult stage, there appear almost uninterrupted pulsations from different sources: cardiac, extracardiac, intestinal, and the ventral diaphragm.Extracardiac pulsations are associated with pressure peaks of 200-500 Pa, occurring at frequencies of 0.3-0.5 Hz. The effect of heartbeat on haemocoelic pressure is very small, 100- to 500-fold smaller, comprising only some 1 or 2 Pa during the vigorous anterograde systolic contractions. Accordingly, extracardiac pulsations are associated with relatively large abdominal movements from 30-90 µm whereas heartbeat produces movements of only 100-500 nm. This shows that extracardiac pulsations can be easily confused with the anterograde heartbeat. It does not seem realistic to assume that the relatively weak insect heart, and not the 100- to 500-fold more powerful extracardiac system of abdominal pump, could be at all responsible for selective accumulation of haemolymph in anterior parts of the body, for inflation of wings or enhancement of tracheal ventilation.It has been established that thermography from the pericardial region is not specific for the heartbeat. It records subepidermal movement of haemolymph resulting from the actions of both dorsal vessel and extracardiac pressure pulses as well. Shortly before adult eclosion the cardiac and extracardiac pulsations occasionally strike in concert, which profoundly increases the flow of haemolymph through pericardial and perineural sinuses. The relatively strong extracardiac pulsations cause passive movements of various visceral organs, tissue membranes, or tissue folds, giving thus a false impression of an authentic pulsation of tissues. In addition, extracardiac pulsations cause rhythmical movements of haemolymph between various organs, thus preventing haemolymph occlusion at the sites where the heart does not reach. It has been emphasized, finally, that the function of the autonomic nervous system (coelopulse), which integrates extracardiac pulsations, depends on homeostatic moderation of excessive or deficient conditions in insect respiration and haemolymph circulation.