Protein motions during catalysis by dihydrofolate reductases

Why are some Enzymes Dimers? Flexibility and Catalysis in Thermotoga Maritima Dihydrofolate Reductase

Dihydrofolate reductase from Thermotoga maritima (TmDFHFR) is a dimeric thermophilic enzyme that catalyzes the hydride transfer from the cofactor NADPH to dihydrofolate less efficiently than other DHFR enzymes, such as the mesophilic analogue Escherichia coli DHFR (EcDHFR). Using QM/MM potentials, we show that the reduced catalytic efficiency of TmDHFR is most likely due to differences in the amino acid sequence that stabilize the M20 loop in an open conformation, which prevents the formation of some interactions in the transition state and increases the number of water molecules in the active site. However, dimerization provides two advantages to the thermophilic enzyme: it protects its structure against denaturation by reducing thermal fluctuations and it provides a less negative activation entropy, toning down the increase of the activation free energy with temperature. Our molecular picture is confirmed by the analysis of the temperature dependence of enzyme kinetic isotope effects in different DHFR enzymes.

Protein dynamics promote hydride tunnelling in substrate oxidation by aryl-alcohol oxidase

The temperature dependence of hydride transfer from the substrate to the N5 of the FAD cofactor during the reductive half-reaction of Pleurotus eryngii aryl-alcohol oxidase (AAO) is assessed here. Kinetic isotope effects on both the pre-steady state reduction of the enzyme and its steady-state kinetics, with differently deuterated substrates, suggest an environmentally-coupled quantum-mechanical tunnelling process. Moreover, those kinetic data, along with the crystallographic structure of the enzyme in complex with a substrate analogue, indicate that AAO shows a pre-organized active site that would only require the approaching of the hydride donor and acceptor for the tunnelled transfer to take place. Modification of the enzyme's active-site architecture by replacement of Tyr92, a residue establishing hydrophobic interactions with the substrate analogue in the crystal structure, in the Y92F, Y92L and Y92W variants resulted in different temperature dependence patterns that indicated a role of this residue in modulating the transfer reaction.

A Rapid Analysis of Variations in Conformational Behavior during Dihydrofolate Reductase Catalysis

Protein flexibility is central to enzyme catalysis, yet it remains challenging both to predict conformational behavior on the basis of analysis of amino acid sequence and protein structure and to provide the necessary breadth of experimental support to any such predictions. Here a generic and rapid procedure for identifying conformational changes during dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) catalysis is described. Using DHFR from Escherichia coli (EcDHFR), selective side-chain ¹³C labeling of methionine and tryptophan residues is shown to be sufficient to detect the closed-to-occluded conformational transition that follows the chemical step in the catalytic cycle, with clear chemical shift perturbations found for both methionine methyl and tryptophan indole groups. In contrast, no such perturbations are seen for the DHFR from the psychrophile Moritella profunda, where the equivalent conformational change is absent. Like EcDHFR, Salmonella enterica DHFR shows experimental evidence of a large-scale conformational change following hydride transfer that relies on conservation of a key hydrogen bonding interaction between the M20 and GH loops, directly comparable to the closed-to-occluded conformational change observed in EcDHFR. For the hyperthermophile Thermotoga maritima, no chemical shift perturbations were observed, suggesting that no major conformational change occurs during the catalytic cycle. In spite of their conserved tertiary structures, DHFRs display variations in conformational sampling that occurs concurrently with catalysis.

Protein motions and dynamic effects in enzyme catalysis

The role of protein motions in promoting the chemical step of enzyme catalysed reactions remains a subject of considerable debate. Here, a unified view of the role of protein dynamics in dihydrofolate reductase catalysis is described. Recently the role of such motions has been investigated by characterising the biophysical properties of isotopically substituted enzymes through a combination of experimental and computational analyses. Together with previous work, these results suggest that dynamic coupling to the chemical coordinate is detrimental to catalysis and may have been selected against during DHFR evolution. The full catalytic power of Nature's catalysts appears to depend on finely tuning protein motions in each step of the catalytic cycle.

Minimization of dynamic effects in the evolution of dihydrofolate reductase

Protein isotope labeling is a powerful technique to probe functionally important motions in enzyme catalysis and can be applied to investigate the conformational dynamics of proteins. Previous investigations have indicated that dynamic coupling is detrimental to catalysis by dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) from the mesophile Escherichia coli (EcDHFR). Comparison of DHFRs from organisms adapted to survive at a wide range of temperatures suggests that dynamic coupling in DHFR catalysis has been minimized during evolution; it arises from reorganizational motions needed to facilitate charge transfer events. Contrary to the behaviour observed for the DHFR from the moderate thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus (BsDHFR), the chemical transformation catalyzed by the cold-adapted bacterium Moritella profunda (MpDHFR) is only weakly affected by protein isotope substitutions at low temperatures, but the isotopically substituted enzyme is a substantially inferior catalyst at higher, non-physiological temperatures. QM/MM studies revealed that this behaviour is caused by the enzyme's structural sensitivity to temperature changes, which enhances unfavorable dynamic coupling at higher temperatures by promoting additional recrossing trajectories on the transition state dividing surface. We postulate that these motions are minimized by fine-tuning DHFR flexibility through optimization of the free energy surface of the reaction, such that a nearly static reaction-ready configuration with optimal electrostatic properties is maintained under physiological conditions.

Survival and risk of relapse of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a Mexican population is affected by dihydrofolate reductase gene polymorphisms

Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is the major target of methotrexate, a key component in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) treatment. Polymorphisms in the gene coding for DHFR have been associated with adverse event treatment. This study evaluated the effect of the -A317G and C829T polymorphisms in the DHFR gene on survival and risk of relapse of ALL. Seventy patients with ALL and 100 healthy individuals were genotyped by the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method. An association between the polymorphisms and the risk of relapse was found (p<0.05); patients with the -317G/G genotype were found to have an 8.55 (95% CI 1.84-39.70) higher chance of relapse and carriers of the 829T/T genotype had a 14.0 (95% CI 1.13-172.63) higher chance of relapse. Other variables, such as age and leukocyte count, were associated (p<0.05) with the risk of relapse of the disease. Individuals with the G/G and T/T genotype of the -A317G and C829T polymorphisms had poorer survival compared to other genotype groups (log-rank test; p<0.05). Although preliminary, these data seem to suggest a role for the DHFR polymorphisms in the risk of relapse of ALL and the mortality risk in these patients.

Effect of pH on hydride transfer by Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase

The kinetic isotope effect (KIE) on hydride transfer in the reaction catalysed by dihydrofolate reductase from Escherichia coli (EcDHFR) is known to be temperature dependent at pH 7, but essentially independent of temperature at elevated pH. Here, we show that the transition from the temperature-dependent regime to the temperature-independent regime occurs sharply between pH 7.5 and 8. The activation energy for hydride transfer is independent of pH. The mechanism leading to the change in behaviour of the KIEs is not clear, but probably involves a conformational change in the enzyme brought about by deprotonation of a key residue (or residues) at high pH. The KIE on hydride transfer at low pH suggests that the rate constant for the reaction is not limited by a conformational change to the enzyme under these conditions. The effect of pH on the temperature dependence of the rate constants and KIEs for hydride transfer catalysed by EcDHFR suggests that enzyme motions and conformational changes do not directly influence the chemistry, but that the reaction conditions affect the conformational ensemble of the enzyme prior to reaction and control the reaction though this route.

The temperature dependence of the kinetic isotope effects of dihydrofolate reductase from Thermotoga maritima is influenced by intersubunit interactions

Dihydrofolate reductase from the hyperthermophile Thermotoga maritima (TmDHFR) is unique among structurally characterized chromosomal DHFRs in that it forms a stable homodimer. Dimerization is believed to play a key role in the high thermal stability of TmDHFR, which is reflected in a melting temperature in excess of 85 degrees C. The dimer interface of TmDHFR is composed of a hydrophobic core with charged residues around the periphery. In particular, Lys129 of each subunit forms three-membered salt bridges with Glu136 and Glu138 of the other subunit. To probe the role of these salt bridges in the dimerization and thermal stability of TmDHFR, we generated a series of variants (TmDHFR-K129E, TmDHFR-E136K, TmDHFR-E138K, and TmDHFR-E136K/E138K) in which these residues were exchanged for residues whose side chains bear the opposite charge. Our results indicate that these salt bridges are key for the high thermal stability of TmDHFR but are not a requirement for dimerization. Although the rate of dihydrofolate reduction by TmDHFR is not significantly affected by the loss of the K129-E136-E138 salt bridges, changes to the temperature dependence of the kinetic isotope effect on hydride transfer are observed. These changes are in agreement with the proposal that DHFR catalysis may be affected by changes to the conformational ensemble of the enzyme rather than only to the coupling of protein motions to the reaction coordinate.

Solvent effects on catalysis by Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase

Hydride transfer catalyzed by dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) has been described previously within an environmentally coupled model of hydrogen tunneling, where protein motions control binding of substrate and cofactor to generate a tunneling ready conformation and modulate the width of the activation barrier and hence the reaction rate. Changes to the composition of the reaction medium are known to perturb protein motions. We have measured kinetic parameters of the reaction catalyzed by DHFR from Escherichia coli in the presence of various cosolvents and cosolutes and show that the dielectric constant, but not the viscosity, of the reaction medium affects the rate of reaction. Neither the primary kinetic isotope effect on the reaction nor its temperature dependence were affected by changes to the bulk solvent properties. These results are in agreement with our previous report on the effect of solvent composition on catalysis by DHFR from the hyperthermophile Thermotoga maritima. However, the effect of solvent on the temperature dependence of the kinetic isotope effect on hydride transfer catalyzed by E. coli DHFR is difficult to explain within a model, in which long-range motions couple to the chemical step of the reaction, but may indicate the existence of a short-range promoting vibration or the presence of multiple nearly isoenergetic conformational substates of enzymes with similar but distinct catalytic properties.

Probing active site geometry using high pressure and secondary isotope effects in an enzyme-catalysed 'deep' H-tunnelling reaction

We report the first study of the effects of hydrostatic pressure on α-2° KIEs for an enzyme-catalysed H-transfer reaction that occurs by 'deep' tunnelling. High pressure causes a significant decrease in the observed α-2° KIE on the pre-steady-state hydride transfer from NADH to FMN in the flavoprotein morphinone reductase. We have recently shown that high pressure causes a reduction in macroscopic reaction barrier width for this reaction. Using DFT vibrational analysis of a simple active site model, we posit that the decrease in α-2° KIE with pressure may arise due to a decrease in the vibrational coupling between the NADH primary (transferred) and secondary hydrogens in the 'tunnelling ready configuration', which more closely resembles the reactant state than the transition state.

Introduction. Biomolecular simulation

'Everything that living things do can be understood in terms of the jigglings and wigglings of atoms' as Richard Feynman provocatively stated nearly 50 years ago. But how can we 'see' this wiggling and jiggling and understand how it drives biology? Increasingly, computer simulations of biological macromolecules are helping to meet this challenge.

Solvent effects on environmentally coupled hydrogen tunnelling during catalysis by dihydrofolate reductase from Thermotoga maritima

Protein motions may be perturbed by altering the properties of the reaction medium. Here we show that dielectric constant, but not viscosity, affects the rate of the hydride-transfer reaction catalysed by dihydrofolate reductase from Thermotoga maritima (TmDHFR), in which quantum-mechanical tunnelling has previously been shown to be driven by protein motions. Neither dielectric constant nor viscosity directly alters the kinetic isotope effect of the reaction or the mechanism of coupling of protein motions to tunnelling. Glycerol and sucrose cause a significant increase in the rate of hydride transfer, but lead to a reduction in the magnitude of the kinetic isotope effect as well as an extension of the temperature range over which "passive" protein dynamics (rather than "active" gating motions) dominate the reaction. Our results are in agreement with the proposal that non-equilibrium dynamical processes (promoting motions) drive the hydride-transfer reaction in TmDHFR.

Solvent as a probe of active site motion and chemistry during the hydrogen tunnelling reaction in morphinone reductase

The reductive half-reaction of morphinone reductase involves a hydride transfer from enzyme-bound beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) to a flavin mononucleotide (FMN). We have previously demonstrated that this step proceeds via a quantum mechanical tunnelling mechanism. Herein, we probe the effect of the solvent on the active site chemistry. The pK(a) of the reduced FMN N1 is 7.4+/-0.7, based on the pH-dependence of the FMN midpoint potential. We rule out that protonation of the reduced FMN N1 is coupled to the preceding H-transfer as both the rate and temperature-dependence of the reaction are insensitive to changes in solution pH above and below this pK(a). Further, the solvent kinetic isotope effect is approximately 1.0 and both the 1 degrees and 2 degrees KIEs are insensitive to solution pH. The effect of the solvent's dielectric constant is investigated and the rate of H-transfer is found to be unaffected by changes in the dielectric constant between approximately 60 and 80. We suggest that, while there is crystallographic evidence for some water in the active site, the putative promoting motion involved in the H-tunnelling reaction is insensitive to such changes.

H-transfers in Photosystem II: what can we learn from recent lessons in the enzyme community?

Over the last 10 years, studies of enzyme systems have demonstrated that, in many cases, H-transfers occur by a quantum mechanical tunneling mechanism analogous to long-range electron transfer. H-transfer reactions can be described by an extension of Marcus theory and, by substituting hydrogen with deuterium (or even tritium), it is possible to explore this theory in new ways by employing kinetic isotope effects. Because hydrogen has a relatively short deBroglie wavelength, H-transfers are controlled by the width of the reaction barrier. By coupling protein dynamics to the reaction coordinate, enzymes have the potential ability to facilitate more efficient H-tunneling by modulating barrier properties. In this review, we describe recent advances in both experimental and theoretical studies of enzymatic H-transfer, in particular the role of protein dynamics or promoting motions. We then discuss possible consequences with regard to tyrosine oxidation/reduction kinetics in Photosystem II.

Atomistic insight into the origin of the temperature-dependence of kinetic isotope effects and H-tunnelling in enzyme systems is revealed through combined experimental studies and biomolecular simulation

The physical basis of the catalytic power of enzymes remains contentious despite sustained and intensive research efforts. Knowledge of enzyme catalysis is predominantly descriptive, gained from traditional protein crystallography and solution studies. Our goal is to understand catalysis by developing a complete and quantitative picture of catalytic processes, incorporating dynamic aspects and the role of quantum tunnelling. Embracing ideas that we have spearheaded from our work on quantum mechanical tunnelling effects linked to protein dynamics for H-transfer reactions, we review our recent progress in mapping macroscopic kinetic descriptors to an atomistic understanding of dynamics linked to biological H-tunnelling reactions.

Mutagenesis of morphinone reductase induces multiple reactive configurations and identifies potential ambiguity in kinetic analysis of enzyme tunneling mechanisms

We have identified multiple reactive configurations (MRCs) of an enzyme-coenzyme complex that have measurably different kinetic properties. In the complex formed between morphinone reductase (MR) and the NADH analogue 1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-NADH (NADH4) the nicotinamide moiety is restrained close to the FMN isoalloxazine ring by hydrogen bonds from Asn-189 and His-186 as determined from the X-ray crystal structure. Molecular dynamic simulations indicate that removal of one of these hydrogen bonds in the N189A MR mutant allows the nicotinamide moiety to occupy a region of configurational space not accessible in wild-type enzyme. Using stopped-flow spectroscopy, we show that reduction of the FMN cofactor by NADH in N189A MR is multiphasic, identifying at least four different reactive configurations of the MR-NADH complex. This contrasts with wild-type MR in which hydride transfer occurs by environmentally coupled tunneling in a single kinetic phase [Pudney et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 14053-14058]. Values for primary and alpha-secondary kinetic isotope effects, and their temperature dependence, for three of the kinetic phases in the N189A MR are consistent with hydride transfer by tunneling. Our analysis enables derivation of mechanistic information concerning different reactive configurations of the same enzyme-coenzyme complex using ensemble stopped-flow methods. Implications for the interpretation from kinetic data of tunneling mechanisms in enzymes are discussed.