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Effects of between and within Herd Moves on Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) Recrudescence and Shedding in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus). Viruses 2022; 14:v14020229. [PMID: 35215824 PMCID: PMC8877707 DOI: 10.3390/v14020229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Haemorrhagic disease associated with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (Elephantid herpesvirus, EEHV) infections is the leading cause of death for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves. This study assessed the effect of captive herd management on EEHV shedding, as evidence of latent infection reactivation, focusing on: (1) the influence of social change on the odds of recrudescence; (2) the respective effects of between and within herd moves; and (3) characteristics of recrudescent viral shedding. Trunk and conjunctival swabs (n = 165) were obtained from six elephants at an EAZA-accredited zoo, collected during a period of social stability, and at times of social change. Longitudinal sampling took place at times of moving two bulls out of the collection and one new bull into an adjacent enclosure to the cow herd (between herd moves), and during a period of mixing this new bull with the cow herd to facilitate mating (within herd moves). Quantitative PCR was employed to detect EEHV 1a/b, 4a/b, and EF–1–α (housekeeping gene). Generalised estimating equations determined EEHV recrudescence odds ratios (OR) and relative viral DNA load. Sixteen EEHV 1a/b shedding events occurred, but no EEHV 4a/b was detected. All management-derived social changes promoted recrudescence (social change OR = 3.27, 95% CI = 0.412–26, p = 0.262; and between herd moves OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 0.178−14.4, p = 0.675), though within herd movements posed the most significant increase of EEHV reactivation odds (OR = 6.86, 95% CI = 0.823−57.1, p = 0.075) and demonstrated the strongest relative influence (post hoc Tukey test p = 0.0425). Shedding onset and magnitude ranged from six to 54 days and from 3.59 to 11.09 ΔCts. Differing challenges are associated with between and within herd movements, which can promote recrudescence and should be considered an exposure risk to naïve elephants.
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Yun Y, Sripiboon S, Pringproa K, Chuammitri P, Punyapornwithaya V, Boonprasert K, Tankaew P, Angkawanish T, Namwongprom K, Arjkumpa O, Brown JL, Thitaram C. Clinical characteristics of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) cases in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) in Thailand during 2006-2019. Vet Q 2021; 41:268-279. [PMID: 34511026 PMCID: PMC8475116 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2021.1980633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) that is a major cause of death in juvenile Asian elephants with EEHV1 and EEHV4 being the most prevalent. Aim To perform a retrospective clinical data analysis. Methods Records of a total of 103 cases in Thailand confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on blood and/or tissue samples. Results The severity of clinical signs varied among EEHV subtypes. EEHV1A was the most prevalent with 58%, followed by EEHV4 with 34%, EEHV1B with 5.8% and EEHV1&4 co-infection with 1.9%. Overall case fatality rate was 66%. When compared among subtypes, 100% case fatality rate was associated with EEHV1&4 co-infection, 83% with EEHV1B, 75% with EEHV1A, and the lowest at 40% for EEHV4. Calves 2- to 4-year old were in the highest age risk group and exhibited more severe clinical signs with the highest mortality. Majority of cases were found in weaned or trained claves and higher number of cases were observed in rainy season. A gender predilection could not be demonstrated. Severely affected elephants presented with thrombocytopenia, depletion of monocytes, lymphocytes and heterophils, a monocyte:heterophil (M:H) ratio lower than 2.37, hypoproteinemia (both albumin and globulin), severe grade of heterophil toxicity, and low red blood cell counts and pack cell volumes. Survival was not affected by antiviral drug treatment in the severely compromised animals. Conclusion Early detection by laboratory testing and aggressive application of therapies comprising of supportive and anti-viral treatment can improve survival outcomes of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaoprapa Yun
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (FVM-CMU), Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Graduate Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Supaphen Sripiboon
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Large Animal and Wildlife Clinical Sciences, Kasetsart University (FVM-KU), Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakornpathom, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Phongsakorn Chuammitri
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Centre for Asia Pacific, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Khajohnpat Boonprasert
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (FVM-CMU), Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (FVM-CMU), Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute (NEI), Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | - Kittikul Namwongprom
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute (NEI), Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | - Orapun Arjkumpa
- Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Provincial Livestock Office, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (FVM-CMU), Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI), Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (FVM-CMU), Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Perrin KL, Kristensen AT, Bertelsen MF, Denk D. Retrospective review of 27 European cases of fatal elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-haemorrhagic disease reveals evidence of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14173. [PMID: 34238966 PMCID: PMC8266883 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93478-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus haemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is widely acknowledged as the most common cause of mortality in young Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in captivity. The objective of the current study was to perform a blinded, retrospective pathology review of European EEHV-HD fatalities, constituting the largest systematic assessment of EEHV-HD pathology to date. Findings between viral genotypes were compared with the aim to investigate if disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) could be substantiated as a significant complicating factor, thereby increasing the understanding of disease pathophysiology. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed endothelial cell (EC) damage and the presence of EC intranuclear inclusion bodies, demonstrating a direct viral cytopathic effect. Microthrombi were observed in 63% of cases in several organs, including lungs, which, together with widespread haemorrhage and thrombocytopenia reported in EEHV-HD case reports, supports the presence of overt DIC as a serious haemostatic complication of active EEHV infection. Death was attributed to widespread vascular damage with multi-organ dysfunction, including severe acute myocardial haemorrhage and subsequent cardiac failure. Systemic inflammation observed in the absence of bacterial infection may be caused by cytokine release syndrome. Findings reinforce the necessity to investigate cytokine responses and haemostatic status during symptomatic and asymptomatic EEHV viraemia, to potentially support the use of anti-inflammatory treatment in conjunction with anti-viral therapy and cardiovascular support.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Perrin
- Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Roskildevej 38, 2000, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
- The Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 16, 1870, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - A T Kristensen
- The Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 16, 1870, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - M F Bertelsen
- Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Roskildevej 38, 2000, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - D Denk
- International Zoo Veterinary Group, Station House, Parkwood Street, Keighley, BD21 4NQ, UK
- Institute for Animal Pathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Veterinärstr. 13, 80539, Munich, Germany
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HENGTRAKUL P, SUDLAPA P, CHAISURAT N, SODSAENGTHIEN S, CHAMNANKIJ C, NOIMOON S, PUNKONG C, PHATTHANAKUNANAN S, LERTWATCHARASARAKUL P, SRIPIBOON S. Biological and environmental factors associated with the detection of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. J Vet Med Sci 2020; 82:1808-1815. [PMID: 33071255 PMCID: PMC7804042 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.20-0309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection is one of the most common diseases in young elephants, causing severe fatal hemorrhagic disease. Subclinical infection was previously described; however, information about the factors associated with virus shedding and reactivation were scarce. To identify the biological and environmental factors related with EEHV detection, blood and oral swab samples were collected from nine captive Asian elephants in Thailand for one year and tested for EEHV presence using real-time PCR. Data including hematological values, management, environmental temperature, and serum cortisol levels were also recorded and analyzed. Results showed that the viral detection frequency ranged from 0-25%. The highest detection frequency was found in the two youngest elephants, aged less than 15 years. Three types of viruses, EEHV1, EEHV4, and EEHV5, were found in this study, which also detected mixed infection in five elephants. Additionally, the study found that sample type, changes in hematological values, management and health issues, and serum cortisol levels were not associated with herpesvirus detection in the elephants. However, EEHV detection percentage was significantly increased in the summer (mid-Feb to mid-May), possibly due to body fitness reduction from food source limitation and low nutrient content. To obtain a broad aspect of EEHV management, long-term EEHV monitoring is highly recommended in every captive elephant herd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pajitra HENGTRAKUL
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Pasinee SUDLAPA
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Nattawan CHAISURAT
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Sasawat SODSAENGTHIEN
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Chonchayan CHAMNANKIJ
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Sakhon NOIMOON
- Khao Kheow Open Zoo, Bangpra, Sriracha, Chonburi 20110, Thailand
| | | | - Sakuna PHATTHANAKUNANAN
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Preeda LERTWATCHARASARAKUL
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Supaphen SRIPIBOON
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
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Schmidt H, Kappelhof J. Review of the management of the Asian elephantElephas maximusEEP: current challenges and future solutions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/izy.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. Schmidt
- Studbook keeper Asian Elephant EEP Royal Rotterdam Zoological & Botanical Gardens Postbus 532 3000 AM Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - J. Kappelhof
- Wageningen University & Research Droevendaalsesteeg 4 6708 PB Wageningen The Netherlands
- Royal Rotterdam Zoological & Botanical Gardens Postbus 532 3000 AM Rotterdam The Netherlands
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Boonprasert K, Punyapornwithaya V, Tankaew P, Angkawanish T, Sriphiboon S, Titharam C, Brown JL, Somgird C. Survival analysis of confirmed elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus cases in Thailand from 2006 - 2018. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219288. [PMID: 31276571 PMCID: PMC6611605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) has been a known cause of death of young elephants in Thailand for over a decade. In this study, we report on the demography, disease characteristics and mortality of 58 elephants with confirmed EEHV hemorrhagic disease between January 2006 and August 2018 using retrospective data subjected to survival analysis. Median age of EEHV presentation was 29 months, and the mortality rate was 68.97% with a median survival time of 36 h. Most EEHV cases occurred in the north of Thailand, the region where most of the country’s captive elephants reside. The hazard ratio analysis identified application of medical procedures and antiviral medications as being significant factors correlated to the risk of death. Our results indicate a need to focus EEHV monitoring efforts on young elephants and to follow current protocols that advise starting treatments before clinical signs appear.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | - Supaphen Sriphiboon
- Department of Large Animal and Wildlife Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakornpathom, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Titharam
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United State of America
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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7
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Angkawanish T, Nielen M, Vernooij H, Brown JL, van Kooten PJS, van den Doel PB, Schaftenaar W, Na Lampang K, Rutten VPMG. Evidence of high EEHV antibody seroprevalence and spatial variation among captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. Virol J 2019; 16:33. [PMID: 30866975 PMCID: PMC6415343 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-019-1142-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) can cause an acute highly fatal hemorrhagic disease in young Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), both ex situ and in situ. Amongst eight EEHV types described so far, type 1 (subtype 1A and 1B) is the predominant disease-associated type. Little is known about routes of infection and pathogenesis of EEHV, and knowledge of disease prevalence, especially in range countries, is limited. Methods A large cross-sectional serological survey was conducted in captive elephants (n = 994) throughout Thailand using an EEHV-1A glycoprotein B protein antigen specific antibody ELISA. Results Antibody seroprevalence was 42.3%, with 420 of 994 elephants testing positive. Associations between seropositivity and potential risk factors for EEHV infection were assessed and included: elephant age, sex, camp cluster size, management type (extensive versus intensive), sampling period (wet vs. dry season) and location of camp (region). Univariable regression analysis identified management system and region as risk factors for the presence of EEHV antibodies in elephants, with region being significant in the final multivariable regression model. Prevalence was highest in the North region of the country (49.4%). Conclusions This study produced baseline serological data for captive elephants throughout Thailand, and showed a significant EEHV burden likely to be maintained in the captive population. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12985-019-1142-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taweepoke Angkawanish
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584, CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,National Elephant Institute, Lampang-Chiangmai highway (km 28-29), Hangchart, Lampang, 52190, Thailand.
| | - Mirjam Nielen
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Vernooij
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, USA
| | - Peter J S van Kooten
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584, CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Kannika Na Lampang
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Victor P M G Rutten
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584, CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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