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Lu L, Wang J, Wang C, Zhu J, Wang H, Liao L, Zhao Y, Wang X, Yang C, He Z, Li M. Plant-derived virulence arresting drugs as novel antimicrobial agents: Discovery, perspective, and challenges in clinical use. Phytother Res 2024; 38:727-754. [PMID: 38014754 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.8072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) emerges as a severe crisis to public health and requires global action. The occurrence of bacterial pathogens with multi-drug resistance appeals to exploring alternative therapeutic strategies. Antivirulence treatment has been a positive substitute in seeking to circumvent AMR, which aims to target virulence factors directly to combat bacterial infections. Accumulated evidence suggests that plant-derived natural products, which have been utilized to treat infectious diseases for centuries, can be abundant sources for screening potential virulence-arresting drugs (VADs) to develop advanced therapeutics for infectious diseases. This review sums up some virulence factors and their actions in various species of bacteria, as well as recent advances pertaining to plant-derived natural products as VAD candidates. Furthermore, we also discuss natural VAD-related clinical trials and patents, the perspective of VAD-based advanced therapeutics for infectious diseases and critical challenges hampering clinical use of VADs, and genomics-guided identification for VAD therapeutic. These newly discovered natural VADs will be encouraging and optimistic candidates that may sustainably combat AMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Jingya Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Chongrui Wang
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Hongping Wang
- Safety Evaluation Center, Sichuan Institute for Drug Control (Sichuan Testing Center of Medical Devices), Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Li Liao
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Yuting Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Langzhong People's Hospital, Langzhong, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Chen Yang
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Zhengyou He
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal and Edible Plants Resources Development of Sichuan Education Department, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Mingxing Li
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
- Cell Therapy & Cell Drugs of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Luzhou, Sichuan, China
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2
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Stevens ET, Van Beeck W, Blackburn B, Tejedor-Sanz S, Rasmussen ARM, Carter ME, Mevers E, Ajo-Franklin CM, Marco ML. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum uses ecologically relevant, exogenous quinones for extracellular electron transfer. mBio 2023; 14:e0223423. [PMID: 37982640 PMCID: PMC10746273 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02234-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE While quinones are essential for respiratory microorganisms, their importance for microbes that rely on fermentation metabolism is not understood. This gap in knowledge hinders our understanding of anaerobic microbial habitats, such in mammalian digestive tracts and fermented foods. We show that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, a model fermentative lactic acid bacteria species abundant in human, animal, and insect microbiomes and fermented foods, uses multiple exogenous, environmental quinones as electron shuttles for a hybrid metabolism involving EET. Interestingly, quinones both stimulate this metabolism as well as cause oxidative stress when extracellular electron acceptors are absent. We also found that quinone-producing, lactic acid bacteria species commonly enriched together with L. plantarum in food fermentations accelerate L. plantarum growth and medium acidification through a mainly quinone- and EET-dependent mechanism. Thus, our work provides evidence of quinone cross-feeding as a key ecological feature of anaerobic microbial habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric T. Stevens
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California‐Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Wannes Van Beeck
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California‐Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Benjamin Blackburn
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Sara Tejedor-Sanz
- Biological Nanostructures Facility, The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Alycia R. M. Rasmussen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California‐Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Mackenzie E. Carter
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California‐Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Emily Mevers
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Caroline M. Ajo-Franklin
- Biological Nanostructures Facility, The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, USA
| | - Maria L. Marco
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California‐Davis, Davis, California, USA
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3
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Douglas EJA, Palk N, Brignoli T, Altwiley D, Boura M, Laabei M, Recker M, Cheung GYC, Liu R, Hsieh RC, Otto M, O'Brien E, McLoughlin RM, Massey RC. Extensive remodelling of the cell wall during the development of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. eLife 2023; 12:RP87026. [PMID: 37401629 PMCID: PMC10328498 DOI: 10.7554/elife.87026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The bloodstream represents a hostile environment that bacteria must overcome to cause bacteraemia. To understand how the major human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus manages this we have utilised a functional genomics approach to identify a number of new loci that affect the ability of the bacteria to survive exposure to serum, the critical first step in the development of bacteraemia. The expression of one of these genes, tcaA, was found to be induced upon exposure to serum, and we show that it is involved in the elaboration of a critical virulence factor, the wall teichoic acids (WTA), within the cell envelope. The activity of the TcaA protein alters the sensitivity of the bacteria to cell wall attacking agents, including antimicrobial peptides, human defence fatty acids, and several antibiotics. This protein also affects the autolytic activity and lysostaphin sensitivity of the bacteria, suggesting that in addition to changing WTA abundance in the cell envelope, it also plays a role in peptidoglycan crosslinking. With TcaA rendering the bacteria more susceptible to serum killing, while simultaneously increasing the abundance of WTA in the cell envelope, it was unclear what effect this protein may have during infection. To explore this, we examined human data and performed murine experimental infections. Collectively, our data suggests that whilst mutations in tcaA are selected for during bacteraemia, this protein positively contributes to the virulence of S. aureus through its involvement in altering the cell wall architecture of the bacteria, a process that appears to play a key role in the development of bacteraemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward JA Douglas
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, University of BathBathUnited Kingdom
| | - Nathanael Palk
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
| | - Tarcisio Brignoli
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilanItaly
| | - Dina Altwiley
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
| | - Marcia Boura
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
| | - Maisem Laabei
- Department of Life Sciences, University of BathBathUnited Kingdom
| | - Mario Recker
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of TübingenTübingenGermany
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn CampusExeterUnited Kingdom
| | - Gordon YC Cheung
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), US National Institutes of Health (NIH)BethesdaUnited States
| | - Ryan Liu
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), US National Institutes of Health (NIH)BethesdaUnited States
| | - Roger C Hsieh
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), US National Institutes of Health (NIH)BethesdaUnited States
| | - Michael Otto
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), US National Institutes of Health (NIH)BethesdaUnited States
| | - Eoin O'Brien
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Rachel M McLoughlin
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Ruth C Massey
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
- Schools of Microbiology and Medicine, University College Cork, and APC Microbiome IrelandCorkIreland
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4
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Liu S, Chen H, Chen J, Wang T, Tu S, Zhang X, Wang Q, Yin Y, Zhang Y, Wang X, Zhao C, Wang H. Transcriptome and Proteome of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Small-Colony Variants Reveal Changed Metabolism and Increased Immune Evasion. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0189822. [PMID: 36786564 PMCID: PMC10101100 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01898-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection has become a public health crisis. Recently, we isolated small-colony variants (SCVs) of MRSA, which are characterized by slow growth, decreased virulence, increased antibiotic resistance, and immune evasion. In the present study, we provided proteomic and transcriptomic profiles of clinical MRSA sequence type 239 (ST239) normal strains and SCVs and attempted to identify the key genes or pathways closely related to SCV formation and survival. RNAs and proteins were extracted and subjected to RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry, and the transcriptome and proteome were evaluated via bioinformatic analysis. The results were verified by functional assays. In total, 822 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 773 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified; of these, 286 DEGs and DEPs were correlated and subjected to Kyoto Encyclopedia Genes and Genomes analysis. Some pathways were significant, including ABC transporters, ribosome biogenesis, and metabolic pathways such as glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and the citrate cycle (tricarboxylic acid [TCA] cycle). Based on these results, we found that the downregulation of ABC transporters and the TCA cycle pathway resulted in electron transport chain deficiencies and reduced ATP production in SCVs, leading to a dependence on glycolysis and its upregulation. In addition, the upregulation of capsule polysaccharides and the downregulation of surface proteins prevented phagocytosis and reduced the adhesion of host cells, contributing to immune evasion by SCVs. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms of SCV formation and survival. IMPORTANCE Small-colony variants (SCVs) of Staphylococcus aureus have drawn increasing research attention. Owing to their slow growth, atypical colony morphology, and unusual metabolic characteristics, SCVs often cause confusion in the laboratory. Furthermore, clinical treatment of SCVs is challenging owing to their antibiotic resistance and immune evasion, leading to persistent and recurrent infections. However, the mechanisms underlying their formation remain unclear. In this study, we isolated SCVs of methicillin-resistant S. aureus and provided transcriptomic and proteomic profiles of normal strains and SCVs. Based on our analysis, glycolysis upregulation and TCA cycle downregulation affected the electron transport chain and energy supply, leading to slower metabolism. Moreover, capsular biosynthesis was increased, while the number of surface proteins decreased, thus promoting immune evasion by SCVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hongbin Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Tianyi Wang
- Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Shangyu Tu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyang Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yuyao Yin
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yawei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojuan Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Chunjiang Zhao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
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5
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Altwiley D, Brignoli T, Duggan S, Massey RC. Triclosan-resistant small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus produce less capsule, less phenol-soluble modulins, and are attenuated in a Galleria mellonella model of infection. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2023; 169:001277. [PMID: 36748621 PMCID: PMC9993119 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In recent work we identified genes that confer the slow-growing and antibiotic-resistant small-colony variant (SCV) form of Staphylococcus aureus, as associated with the amount of capsule the bacteria produce. In this study we isolated a triclosan-resistant SCV (tr-SCV) and demonstrated that it produces significantly less capsule, an effect that appears to be mediated at the transcriptional stage. As with other SCVs, we found that the tr-SCV produces less toxins, and when compared to both a capsule and an Agr mutant we found the tr-SCV to be significantly attenuated in an insect model of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Altwiley
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tarcisio Brignoli
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Seána Duggan
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Ruth C Massey
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Schools of Microbiology and Medicine, and the APC Microbiome Ireland, UCC, Cork, Ireland
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6
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Douglas EJA, Alkhzem AH, Wonfor T, Li S, Woodman TJ, Blagbrough IS, Laabei M. Antibacterial activity of novel linear polyamines against Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:948343. [PMID: 36071957 PMCID: PMC9441809 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.948343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
New therapeutic options are urgently required for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections. Accordingly, we sought to exploit the vulnerability of S. aureus to naturally occurring polyamines. We have developed and tested the anti-staphylococcal activity of three novel linear polyamines based on spermine and norspermine. Using a panel of genetically distinct and clinically relevant multidrug resistant S. aureus isolates, including the polyamine resistant USA300 strain LAC, compound AHA-1394 showed a greater than 128-fold increase in inhibition against specific S. aureus strains compared to the most active natural polyamine. Furthermore, we show that AHA-1394 has superior biofilm prevention and biofilm dispersal properties compared to natural polyamines while maintaining minimal toxicity toward human HepG2 cells. We examined the potential of S. aureus to gain resistance to AHA-1394 following in vitro serial passage. Whole genome sequencing of two stable resistant mutants identified a gain of function mutation (S337L) in the phosphatidylglycerol lysyltransferase mprF gene. Inactivation of mutant mprF confirmed the importance of this allele to AHA-1394 resistance. Importantly, AHA-1394 resistant mutants showed a marked decrease in relative fitness and increased generation time. Intriguingly, mprF::S337L contributed to altered surface charge only in the USA300 background whereas increased cell wall thickness was observed in both USA300 and SH1000. Lastly, we show that AHA-1394 displays a particular proclivity for antibiotic potentiation, restoring sensitivity of MRSA and VRSA isolates to daptomycin, oxacillin and vancomycin. Together this study shows that polyamine derivatives are impressive drug candidates that warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J. A. Douglas
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Abdulaziz H. Alkhzem
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Toska Wonfor
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Shuxian Li
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy J. Woodman
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Ian S. Blagbrough
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Maisem Laabei
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Maisem Laabei,
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7
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Zhou S, Rao Y, Li J, Huang Q, Rao X. Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants: Formation, infection, and treatment. Microbiol Res 2022; 260:127040. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.127040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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Stevens EJ, Morse DJ, Bonini D, Duggan S, Brignoli T, Recker M, Lees JA, Croucher NJ, Bentley S, Wilson DJ, Earle SG, Dixon R, Nobbs A, Jenkinson H, van Opijnen T, Thibault D, Wilkinson OJ, Dillingham MS, Carlile S, McLoughlin RM, Massey RC. Targeted control of pneumolysin production by a mobile genetic element in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Genom 2022; 8:000784. [PMID: 35416147 PMCID: PMC9453066 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major human pathogen that can cause severe invasive diseases such as pneumonia, septicaemia and meningitis. Young children are at a particularly high risk, with an estimated 3-4 million cases of severe disease and between 300 000 and 500 000 deaths attributable to pneumococcal disease each year. The haemolytic toxin pneumolysin (Ply) is a primary virulence factor for this bacterium, yet despite its key role in pathogenesis, immune evasion and transmission, the regulation of Ply production is not well defined. Using a genome-wide association approach, we identified a large number of potential affectors of Ply activity, including a gene acquired horizontally on the antibiotic resistance-conferring Integrative and Conjugative Element (ICE) ICESp23FST81. This gene encodes a novel modular protein, ZomB, which has an N-terminal UvrD-like helicase domain followed by two Cas4-like domains with potent ATP-dependent nuclease activity. We found the regulatory effect of ZomB to be specific for the ply operon, potentially mediated by its high affinity for the BOX repeats encoded therein. Using a murine model of pneumococcal colonization, we further demonstrate that a ZomB mutant strain colonizes both the upper respiratory tract and lungs at higher levels when compared to the wild-type strain. While the antibiotic resistance-conferring aspects of ICESp23FST81 are often credited with contributing to the success of the S. pneumoniae lineages that acquire it, its ability to control the expression of a major virulence factor implicated in bacterial transmission is also likely to have played an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Stevens
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Daniel J Morse
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Dora Bonini
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Seána Duggan
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Tarcisio Brignoli
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Mario Recker
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Exeter, TR10 9FE, UK.,Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - John A Lees
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St. Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Nicholas J Croucher
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St. Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Stephen Bentley
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Daniel J Wilson
- Big Data Institute, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Sarah G Earle
- Big Data Institute, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Robert Dixon
- Big Data Institute, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Angela Nobbs
- Bristol Dental School, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS1 2LY, UK
| | - Howard Jenkinson
- Bristol Dental School, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS1 2LY, UK
| | | | - Derek Thibault
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Oliver J Wilkinson
- DNA-Protein Interactions Unit, School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Mark S Dillingham
- DNA-Protein Interactions Unit, School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Simon Carlile
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Rachel M McLoughlin
- Host Pathogen Interactions Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ruth C Massey
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK.,Schools of Microbiology and Medicine and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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