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Zhang L, Tian X, Sun L, Mi K, Wang R, Gong F, Huang L. Bacterial Efflux Pump Inhibitors Reduce Antibiotic Resistance. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:170. [PMID: 38399231 PMCID: PMC10892612 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16020170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial resistance is a growing problem worldwide, and the number of deaths due to drug resistance is increasing every year. We must pay great attention to bacterial resistance. Otherwise, we may go back to the pre-antibiotic era and have no drugs on which to rely. Bacterial resistance is the result of several causes, with efflux mechanisms widely recognised as a significant factor in the development of resistance to a variety of chemotherapeutic and antimicrobial medications. Efflux pump inhibitors, small molecules capable of restoring the effectiveness of existing antibiotics, are considered potential solutions to antibiotic resistance and have been an active area of research in recent years. This article provides a review of the efflux mechanisms of common clinical pathogenic bacteria and their efflux pump inhibitors and describes the effects of efflux pump inhibitors on biofilm formation, bacterial virulence, the formation of bacterial persister cells, the transfer of drug resistance among bacteria, and mismatch repair. Numerous efforts have been made in the past 20 years to find novel efflux pump inhibitors which are known to increase the effectiveness of medicines against multidrug-resistant strains. Therefore, the application of efflux pump inhibitors has excellent potential to address and reduce bacterial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lei Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Kun Mi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ru Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fengying Gong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lingli Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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Bhowmik P, Modi B, Roy P, Chowdhury A. Strategies to combat Gram-negative bacterial resistance to conventional antibacterial drugs: a review. Osong Public Health Res Perspect 2023; 14:333-346. [PMID: 37920891 PMCID: PMC10626324 DOI: 10.24171/j.phrp.2022.0323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of antimicrobial resistance raises the fear of untreatable diseases. Antimicrobial resistance is a multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon that is the cumulative result of different factors. While Gram-positive pathogens, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium difficile, were previously the most concerning issues in the field of public health, Gram-negative pathogens are now of prime importance. The World Health Organization's priority list of pathogens mostly includes multidrug-resistant Gram-negative organisms particularly carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales, carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. The spread of Gram-negative bacterial resistance is a global issue, involving a variety of mechanisms. Several strategies have been proposed to control resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as the development of antimicrobial auxiliary agents and research into chemical compounds with new modes of action. Another emerging trend is the development of naturally derived antibacterial compounds that aim for targets novel areas, including engineered bacteriophages, probiotics, metal-based antibacterial agents, odilorhabdins, quorum sensing inhibitors, and microbiome-modifying agents. This review focuses on the current status of alternative treatment regimens against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria, aiming to provide a snapshot of the situation and some information on the broader context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Bhowmik
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Science & Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
| | - Barkha Modi
- Department of Microbiology, Techno India University, Kolkata, India
| | - Parijat Roy
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Science & Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
| | - Antarika Chowdhury
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Science & Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
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Tokalı FS, Şenol H, Bulut Ş, Hacıosmanoğlu-Aldoğan E. Synthesis, Characterization and Molecular Docking Studies of Highly Selective New Hydrazone Derivatives of Anthranilic Acid and Their Ring Closure Analogue Quinazolin-4(3H)-ones Against Lung Cancer Cells A549. J Mol Struct 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2023.135176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
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Antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory potential of new quinazolines bearing benzenesulfonamide moiety. Future Med Chem 2023; 15:275-290. [PMID: 36891994 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2022-0297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfonamides are privileged candidates with potent anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) activity and could replenish the MRSA antibiotic pipeline. The initial screening of a series of quinazolinone benzenesulfonamide derivatives 5-18 against multidrug-resistant bacterial and fungal strains revealed their potent activity. The promising compounds were conjugated with ZnONPs to study the effect of nanoparticle formation on the antimicrobial, cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activity. Compounds 5, 11, 16 and 18 revealed promising antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities with superior safety profiles and enhanced activity upon nanoformulation. The immunomodulatory potential of compounds 5, 11, 16 and 18 was assessed. Compounds 5 and 11 demonstrated an increase in spleen and thymus weight and boosted the activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, confirming their promising antimicrobial, cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activity.
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Tokalı FS, Demir Y, Demircioğlu İH, Türkeş C, Kalay E, Şendil K, Beydemir Ş. Synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of novel library sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives as potential aldose reductase inhibitors. Drug Dev Res 2022; 83:586-604. [PMID: 34585414 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives was designed to inhibit aldose reductase (ALR2, EC 1.1.1.21). Novel quinazolinone derivatives (1-21) were synthesized from the reaction of sulfonated aldehydes with 3-amino-2-alkylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones in glacial acetic acid with good yields (85%-94%). The structures of the novel molecules were characterized using IR, 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and HRMS. All the novel quinazolinones (1-21) demonstrated nanomolar levels of inhibitory activity against ALR2 (KI s are in the range of 101.50-2066.00 nM). Besides, 4-[(2-isopropyl-4-oxoquinazolin-3[4H]-ylimino)methyl]phenyl benzenesulfonate (15) showed higher inhibitor activity inhibited ALR2 up to 7.7-fold compared to epalrestat, a standard inhibitor. Binding interactions between ALR2 and quinazolinones have been investigated using Schrödinger Small-Molecule Drug Discovery Suite 2021-1, reported possible inhibitor-ALR2 interactions. Both in vitro and in silico study results suggest that these quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives (1-21) require further molecular modification to improve their drug nominee potency as an ALR2 inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feyzi Sinan Tokalı
- Department of Material and Material Processing Technologies, Kars Vocational School, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey
| | - Yeliz Demir
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Nihat Delibalta Göle Vocational High School, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey
| | | | - Cüneyt Türkeş
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Erzincan, Turkey
| | - Erbay Kalay
- Department of Material and Material Processing Technologies, Kars Vocational School, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey
| | - Kıvılcım Şendil
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Science, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey
| | - Şükrü Beydemir
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey
- The Rectorate of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey
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Kaczor A, Witek K, Podlewska S, Sinou V, Czekajewska J, Żesławska E, Doroz-Płonka A, Lubelska A, Latacz G, Nitek W, Bischoff M, Alibert S, Pagès JM, Jacob C, Karczewska E, Bolla JM, Handzlik J. Molecular Insights into an Antibiotic Enhancer Action of New Morpholine-Containing 5-Arylideneimidazolones in the Fight against MDR Bacteria. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22042062. [PMID: 33669790 PMCID: PMC7922564 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In the search for an effective strategy to overcome antimicrobial resistance, a series of new morpholine-containing 5-arylideneimidazolones differing within either the amine moiety or at position five of imidazolones was explored as potential antibiotic adjuvants against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Compounds (7–23) were tested for oxacillin adjuvant properties in the Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) strain ATCC 25923 and Methicillin-resistant S. aureus MRSA 19449. Compounds 14–16 were tested additionally in combination with various antibiotics. Molecular modelling was performed to assess potential mechanism of action. Microdilution and real-time efflux (RTE) assays were carried out in strains of K. aerogenes to determine the potential of compounds 7–23 to block the multidrug efflux pump AcrAB-TolC. Drug-like properties were determined experimentally. Two compounds (10, 15) containing non-condensed aromatic rings, significantly reduced oxacillin MICs in MRSA 19449, while 15 additionally enhanced the effectiveness of ampicillin. Results of molecular modelling confirmed the interaction with the allosteric site of PBP2a as a probable MDR-reversing mechanism. In RTE, the compounds inhibited AcrAB-TolC even to 90% (19). The 4-phenylbenzylidene derivative (15) demonstrated significant MDR-reversal “dual action” for β-lactam antibiotics in MRSA and inhibited AcrAB-TolC in K. aerogenes. 15 displayed also satisfied solubility and safety towards CYP3A4 in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Kaczor
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
| | - Karolina Witek
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (J.C.); (E.K.)
- UMR_MD1, U-1261, Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, SSA, MCT, Faculté de Pharmacie, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (V.S.); (S.A.); (J.-M.P.); (J.-M.B.)
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany;
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus B 2.1, D-66123 Saarbruecken, Germany;
| | - Sabina Podlewska
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ul. Smętna 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Veronique Sinou
- UMR_MD1, U-1261, Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, SSA, MCT, Faculté de Pharmacie, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (V.S.); (S.A.); (J.-M.P.); (J.-M.B.)
| | - Joanna Czekajewska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (J.C.); (E.K.)
| | - Ewa Żesławska
- Pedagogical University of Cracow, Institute of Biology, ul. Podchorążych 2, 30-084 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Agata Doroz-Płonka
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
| | - Annamaria Lubelska
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
| | - Gniewomir Latacz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
| | - Wojciech Nitek
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 2, 30-387 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Markus Bischoff
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany;
| | - Sandrine Alibert
- UMR_MD1, U-1261, Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, SSA, MCT, Faculté de Pharmacie, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (V.S.); (S.A.); (J.-M.P.); (J.-M.B.)
| | - Jean-Marie Pagès
- UMR_MD1, U-1261, Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, SSA, MCT, Faculté de Pharmacie, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (V.S.); (S.A.); (J.-M.P.); (J.-M.B.)
| | - Claus Jacob
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus B 2.1, D-66123 Saarbruecken, Germany;
| | - Elżbieta Karczewska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (J.C.); (E.K.)
| | - Jean-Michel Bolla
- UMR_MD1, U-1261, Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, SSA, MCT, Faculté de Pharmacie, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (V.S.); (S.A.); (J.-M.P.); (J.-M.B.)
| | - Jadwiga Handzlik
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland; (A.K.); (K.W.); (S.P.); (A.D.-P.); (A.L.); (G.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48 12 620-55-80
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Tokalı FS, Taslimi P, Demircioğlu İH, Karaman M, Gültekin MS, Şendil K, Gülçin İ. Design, synthesis, molecular docking, and some metabolic enzyme inhibition properties of novel quinazolinone derivatives. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2021; 354:e2000455. [PMID: 33537994 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.202000455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
3-Amino-2-ethylquinazolin-4(3H)-one (3) was synthesized in two steps from the reaction of amide (2), which was obtained from the treatment of methyl anthranilate (1) with propionyl chloride, with hydrazine. From the reaction of 3-amino-2-ethylquinazolin-4(3H)-one (3) with various aromatic aldehydes, novel benzylidenaminoquinazolin-4(3H)-one (3a-n) derivatives were synthesized. The structures of the novel molecules were characterized using infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1 H-NMR and 13 C-NMR), and high-resolution mass spectroscopy. The novel compounds were tested against some metabolic enzymes, including α-glucosidase (α-Glu), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and human carbonic anhydrases I and II (hCA I and II). The novel compounds showed Ki values in the range of 244-988 nM for hCA I, 194-900 nM for hCA II, 30-156 nM for AChE, and 215-625 nM for α-Glu. The binding affinities of the most active compounds were calculated as -7.636, -6.972, -10.080, and -8.486 kcal/mol for hCA I, hCA II, AChE, and α-Glu enzymes, respectively. The aromatic ring of the quinazoline moiety plays a critical role in the inhibition of the enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feyzi S Tokalı
- Department of Material and Material Processing Technologies, Kars Vocational School, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey
| | - Parham Taslimi
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Bartin University, Bartin, Turkey
| | | | - Muhammet Karaman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Kilis 7 Aralik University, Kilis, Turkey
| | - Mehmet S Gültekin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Kıvılcım Şendil
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey
| | - İlhami Gülçin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
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Ghorab MM, Alqahtani AS, Soliman AM, Askar AA. Novel N-(Substituted) Thioacetamide Quinazolinone Benzenesulfonamides as Antimicrobial Agents. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:3161-3180. [PMID: 32440116 PMCID: PMC7211327 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s241433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM With the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance, efforts are being made to obtain new selective antimicrobial agents. Hybridization between quinazolinone and benzenesulfonamide can provide new antimicrobial candidates. Also, the use of nanoparticles can help boost drug efficacy and lower side effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS Novel quinazolinone-benzenesulfonamide derivatives 5-18 were synthesized and screened for their antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, MRSA and yeast. The most potent compound 16 was conjugated with copper oxide nanoparticles 16-CuONPs by gamma irradiation (4.5 KGy). Characterization was performed using UV-Visible, TEM examination, XRD patterns and DLS. Moreover, compound 16 was used to synthesize two nanoformulations: 16-CNPs by loading 16 in chitosan nanoparticles and the nanocomposites 16-CuONPs-CNPs. Characterization of these nanoformulations was performed using TEM and zeta potential. Besides, the inhibitory profile against Staphylococcus aureus DNA gyrase was assayed. Cytotoxic evaluation of 16, 16-CNPs and 16-CuONPs-CNPs on normal VERO cell line was carried out to determine its relative safety. Molecular docking of 16 was performed inside the active site of S. aureus DNA gyrase. RESULTS Compound 16 was the most active in this series against all the tested strains and showed inhibition zones and MICs in the ranges of 25-36 mm and 0.31-5.0 µg/mL, respectively. The antimicrobial screening of the synthesized nanoformulations revealed that 16-CuONPs-CNPs displayed the most potent activity. The MBCs of 16 and the nanoformulations were measured and proved their bactericidal mode of action. The inhibitory profile against S. aureus DNA gyrase showed IC50 ranging from 10.57 to 27.32 µM. Cytotoxic evaluation of 16, 16-CNPs and 16-CuONPs-CNPs against normal VERO cell lines proved its relative safety (IC50= 927, 543 and 637 µg/mL, respectively). Molecular docking of 16 inside the active site of S. aureus DNA gyrase showed that it binds in the same manner as that of the co-crystallized ligand, ciprofloxacin. CONCLUSION Compound 16 could be considered as a new antimicrobial lead candidate with enhanced activity upon nanoformulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa M Ghorab
- Department of Drug Radiation Research, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), Cairo11765, Egypt
| | - Ali S Alqahtani
- Medicinal, Aromatic and Poisonous Plants Research Center (MAPPRC), College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh11451, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aiten M Soliman
- Department of Drug Radiation Research, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), Cairo11765, Egypt
| | - Ahmed A Askar
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
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Reza A, Sutton JM, Rahman KM. Effectiveness of Efflux Pump Inhibitors as Biofilm Disruptors and Resistance Breakers in Gram-Negative (ESKAPEE) Bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:antibiotics8040229. [PMID: 31752382 PMCID: PMC6963839 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8040229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance represents a significant threat to the modern healthcare provision. The ESKAPEE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium., Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp. and Escherichia coli), in particular, have proven to be especially challenging to treat, due to their intrinsic and acquired ability to rapidly develop resistance mechanisms in response to environmental threats. The development of biofilm has been characterised as an essential contributing factor towards antimicrobial-resistance and tolerance. Several studies have implicated the involvement of efflux pumps in antibiotic resistance, both directly, via drug extrusion and indirectly, through the formation of biofilm. As a result, the underlying mechanism of these pumps has attracted considerable interest due to the potential of targeting these protein structures and developing novel adjunct therapies. Subsequent investigations have revealed the ability of efflux pump-inhibitors (EPIs) to block drug-extrusion and disrupt biofilm formation, thereby, potentiating antibiotics and reversing resistance of pathogen towards them. This review will discuss the potential of EPIs as a possible solution to antimicrobial resistance, examining different challenges to the design of these compounds, with an emphasis on Gram-negative ESKAPEE pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akif Reza
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK;
| | - J. Mark Sutton
- National Infections Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JG, UK;
| | - Khondaker Miraz Rahman
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)207-848-1891
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Agre N, Degani M, Gupta A, Bhakta S, Ray MK. Synthesis and mycobacterial evaluation of 5‐substituted‐6‐acetyl‐2‐amino‐7‐methyl‐5,8‐dihydropyrido‐[2,3‐d]pyrimidin‐4(3H)‐one derivatives. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2019; 352:e1900068. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201900068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Neha Agre
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Chemical Technology Mumbai India
- Department of Biological Sciences, The Institute of Structural and Molecular BiologyBirkbeck, University of London London United Kingdom
| | - Mariam Degani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Chemical Technology Mumbai India
| | - Antima Gupta
- Department of Biological Sciences, The Institute of Structural and Molecular BiologyBirkbeck, University of London London United Kingdom
| | - Sanjib Bhakta
- Department of Biological Sciences, The Institute of Structural and Molecular BiologyBirkbeck, University of London London United Kingdom
| | - Mukti Kanta Ray
- Tuberculosis, Immunology, & Immunoassay Development Section, Radiation Medicine Centre (BARC)Tata Memorial Hospital Mumbai India
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Lamut A, Peterlin Mašič L, Kikelj D, Tomašič T. Efflux pump inhibitors of clinically relevant multidrug resistant bacteria. Med Res Rev 2019; 39:2460-2504. [PMID: 31004360 DOI: 10.1002/med.21591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial infections are an increasingly serious issue worldwide. The inability of existing therapies to treat multidrug-resistant pathogens has been recognized as an important challenge of the 21st century. Efflux pumps are important in both intrinsic and acquired bacterial resistance and identification of small molecule efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs), capable of restoring the effectiveness of available antibiotics, is an active research field. In the last two decades, much effort has been made to identify novel EPIs. However, none of them has so far been approved for therapeutic use. In this article, we explore different structural families of currently known EPIs for multidrug resistance efflux systems in the most extensively studied pathogens (NorA in Staphylococcus aureus, AcrAB-TolC in Escherichia coli, and MexAB-OprM in Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Both synthetic and natural compounds are described, with structure-activity relationship studies and optimization processes presented systematically for each family individually. In vitro activities against selected test strains are presented in a unifying manner for all the EPIs described, together with the most important toxicity, pharmacokinetic and in vivo efficacy data. A critical evaluation of lead-likeness characteristics and the potential for clinical development of the most promising inhibitors of the three efflux systems is described. This overview of EPIs is a good starting point for the identification of novel effective antibacterial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andraž Lamut
- Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lucija Peterlin Mašič
- Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Danijel Kikelj
- Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tihomir Tomašič
- Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Efflux pump inhibition by 11H-pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-11-one analogues in mycobacteria. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:4942-4951. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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13
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Evaluation of a series of 2-napthamide derivatives as inhibitors of the drug efflux pump AcrB for the reversal of antimicrobial resistance. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:733-739. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Alibert S, N'gompaza Diarra J, Hernandez J, Stutzmann A, Fouad M, Boyer G, Pagès JM. Multidrug efflux pumps and their role in antibiotic and antiseptic resistance: a pharmacodynamic perspective. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2016; 13:301-309. [PMID: 27764576 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2017.1251581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Worrying levels of bacterial resistance have been reported worldwide involving the failure of many available antibiotic treatments. Multidrug resistance (MDR) in Gram-negative bacteria is often ascribed to the presence of multiple and different resistance mechanisms in the same strain. RND efflux pumps play a major role and are an attractive target to discover new antibacterial drugs. Areas covered: This review discusses the prevalence of efflux pumps, their overexpression in clinical scenarios, their polyselectivity, their effect on the intracellular concentrations of various antibiotics associated with the alteration of the membrane permeability and their involvement in pathogenicity are discussed. Expert opinion: Efflux pumps are new targets for the development of adjuvant in antibiotic treatments by of efflux pump inhibition. They may allow us to rejuvenate old antibiotics acting on their concentration inside the bacteria and thus potentiating their activity while blocking the release of virulence factors. It is a pharmacodynamic challenge to finalize new combined therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Alibert
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
| | - Joannah N'gompaza Diarra
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
| | - Jessica Hernandez
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
| | - Aurélien Stutzmann
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
| | - Marwa Fouad
- b Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy , Cairo University , Giza , Egypt
| | - Gérard Boyer
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
| | - Jean-Marie Pagès
- a Aix-Marseille Université, IRBA, TMCD2, UMR-MD1, Transporteurs Membranaires, Chimioresistance et Drug Design, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie , Marseille , France
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Venter H, Mowla R, Ohene-Agyei T, Ma S. RND-type drug efflux pumps from Gram-negative bacteria: molecular mechanism and inhibition. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:377. [PMID: 25972857 PMCID: PMC4412071 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug efflux protein complexes confer multidrug resistance on bacteria by transporting a wide spectrum of structurally diverse antibiotics. Moreover, organisms can only acquire resistance in the presence of an active efflux pump. The substrate range of drug efflux pumps is not limited to antibiotics, but it also includes toxins, dyes, detergents, lipids, and molecules involved in quorum sensing; hence efflux pumps are also associated with virulence and biofilm formation. Inhibitors of efflux pumps are therefore attractive compounds to reverse multidrug resistance and to prevent the development of resistance in clinically relevant bacterial pathogens. Recent successes on the structure determination and functional analysis of the AcrB and MexB components of the AcrAB-TolC and MexAB-OprM drug efflux systems as well as the structure of the fully assembled, functional triparted AcrAB-TolC complex significantly contributed to our understanding of the mechanism of substrate transport and the options for inhibition of efflux. These data, combined with the well-developed methodologies for measuring efflux pump inhibition, could allow the rational design, and subsequent experimental verification of potential efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs). In this review we will explore how the available biochemical and structural information can be translated into the discovery and development of new compounds that could reverse drug resistance in Gram-negative pathogens. The current literature on EPIs will also be analyzed and the reasons why no compounds have yet progressed into clinical use will be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrietta Venter
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Rumana Mowla
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | | | - Shutao Ma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University Jinan, China
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Xu ZQ, Flavin MT, Flavin J. Combating multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2013; 23:163-82. [PMID: 24215473 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2014.848853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections, especially those caused by Gram-negative pathogens, have emerged as one of the world's greatest health threats. The development of novel antibiotics to treat MDR Gram-negative bacteria has, however, stagnated over the last half century. AREAS COVERED This review provides an overview of recent R&D activities in the search for novel antibiotics against MDR Gram-negatives. It provides emphasis in three key areas. First, the article looks at new analogs of existing antibiotic molecules such as β-lactams, tetracyclines, and aminoglycoside as well as agents against novel bacterial targets such as aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and peptide deformylase. Second, it also examines alternative strategies to conventional approaches including cationic antimicrobial peptides, siderophores, efflux pump inhibitors, therapeutic antibodies, and renewed interest in abandoned treatments or those with limited indications. Third, the authors aim to provide an update on the current clinical development status for each drug candidate. EXPERT OPINION The traditional analog approach is insufficient to meet the formidable challenge brought forth by MDR superbugs. With the disappointing results of the genomics approach for delivering novel targets and drug candidates, alternative strategies to permeate the bacterial cell membrane, enhance influx, disrupt efflux, and target specific pathogens via therapeutic antibodies are attractive and promising. Coupled with incentivized business models, governmental policies, and a clarified regulatory pathway, it is hoped that the antibiotic pipeline will be filled with an effective armamentarium to safeguard global health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ze-Qi Xu
- SynChem, Inc. , 1400 Chase Avenue, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007 , USA +1 847 298 2436 ;
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Valade E, Davin-Regli A, Bolla JM, Pagès JM. Bacterial Membrane, a Key for Controlling Drug Influx and Efflux. Antibiotics (Basel) 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527659685.ch9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Kourtesi C, Ball AR, Huang YY, Jachak SM, Vera DMA, Khondkar P, Gibbons S, Hamblin MR, Tegos GP. Microbial efflux systems and inhibitors: approaches to drug discovery and the challenge of clinical implementation. Open Microbiol J 2013; 7:34-52. [PMID: 23569468 PMCID: PMC3617545 DOI: 10.2174/1874285801307010034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Revised: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional antimicrobials are increasingly ineffective due to the emergence of multidrug-resistance among pathogenic microorganisms. The need to overcome these deficiencies has triggered exploration for novel and unconventional approaches to controlling microbial infections. Multidrug efflux systems (MES) have been a profound obstacle in the successful deployment of antimicrobials. The discovery of small molecule efflux system blockers has been an active and rapidly expanding research discipline. A major theme in this platform involves efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) from natural sources. The discovery methodologies and the available number of natural EPI-chemotypes are increasing. Advances in our understanding of microbial physiology have shed light on a series of pathways and phenotypes where the role of efflux systems is pivotal. Complementing existing antimicrobial discovery platforms such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) with efflux inhibition is a subject under investigation. This core information is a stepping stone in the challenge of highlighting an effective drug development path for EPIs since the puzzle of clinical implementation remains unsolved. This review summarizes advances in the path of EPI discovery, discusses potential avenues of EPI implementation and development, and underlines the need for highly informative and comprehensive translational approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Kourtesi
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico, School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA ; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
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Special Challenges to the Rational Design of Antibacterial Agents. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-417150-3.00018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Schweizer HP. Understanding efflux in Gram-negative bacteria: opportunities for drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2012; 7:633-42. [PMID: 22607346 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.688949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Bacteria evolved an arsenal of mechanisms to deal with toxic compounds and metabolic stresses, including antimicrobial agents. Efflux pumps are major players in the multidrug resistance of Gram-negative bacteria and pose major hurdles in the drug discovery process. However, recent advances in our understanding of efflux in these bacteria provide opportunities and assets for drug discovery. AREAS COVERED This review provides an overview of drug efflux in Gram-negative bacteria and its role in antimicrobial resistance, stress responses and other biological processes such as biofilm formation, and virulence. The discussion includes comments on the significance of synergy between a low-permeability outer membrane and efflux, notably the role of porins and lipopolysaccharide. The author then summarizes efforts aimed at inhibiting efflux pumps as a means to extend the utility of clinically useful antibiotics. This includes highlights of identification and characterization of small molecule efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) from natural and synthetic sources, as well as novel strategies such as gene silencing and inhibitory antibodies. EXPERT OPINION Options for treating infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria are limited. Given the attractiveness of the therapeutic potential of efflux pump inhibition, further studies exploring novel strategies to interfere with efflux pump expression and function are warranted. This includes rational EPI design facilitated by pump structure information, exploitation of genetically defined efflux-proficient and efflux-compromised strain panels and non-traditional approaches such as pump inhibition by gene silencing, antibodies and perhaps even phage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert P Schweizer
- Colorado State University, IDRC at Foothills Campus, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO 80523-0922, USA.
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Papp-Wallace KM, Endimiani A, Taracila MA, Bonomo RA. Carbapenems: past, present, and future. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:4943-60. [PMID: 21859938 PMCID: PMC3195018 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00296-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 860] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review, we summarize the current "state of the art" of carbapenem antibiotics and their role in our antimicrobial armamentarium. Among the β-lactams currently available, carbapenems are unique because they are relatively resistant to hydrolysis by most β-lactamases, in some cases act as "slow substrates" or inhibitors of β-lactamases, and still target penicillin binding proteins. This "value-added feature" of inhibiting β-lactamases serves as a major rationale for expansion of this class of β-lactams. We describe the initial discovery and development of the carbapenem family of β-lactams. Of the early carbapenems evaluated, thienamycin demonstrated the greatest antimicrobial activity and became the parent compound for all subsequent carbapenems. To date, more than 80 compounds with mostly improved antimicrobial properties, compared to those of thienamycin, are described in the literature. We also highlight important features of the carbapenems that are presently in clinical use: imipenem-cilastatin, meropenem, ertapenem, doripenem, panipenem-betamipron, and biapenem. In closing, we emphasize some major challenges and urge the medicinal chemist to continue development of these versatile and potent compounds, as they have served us well for more than 3 decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztina M. Papp-Wallace
- Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
- Departments of Medicine
| | - Andrea Endimiani
- Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern 3010, Bern, Switzerland
- Departments of Medicine
| | | | - Robert A. Bonomo
- Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
- Departments of Medicine
- Pharmacology
- Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
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Synthesis of some new substituted iodoquinazoline derivatives and their antimicrobial screening. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Nikaido H, Pagès JM. Broad-specificity efflux pumps and their role in multidrug resistance of Gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 36:340-63. [PMID: 21707670 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00290.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 488] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance mechanisms reported in Gram-negative bacteria are causing a worldwide health problem. The continuous dissemination of 'multidrug-resistant' (MDR) bacteria drastically reduces the efficacy of our antibiotic 'arsenal' and consequently increases the frequency of therapeutic failure. In MDR bacteria, the overexpression of efflux pumps that expel structurally unrelated drugs contributes to the reduced susceptibility by decreasing the intracellular concentration of antibiotics. During the last decade, several clinical data have indicated an increasing involvement of efflux pumps in the emergence and dissemination of resistant Gram-negative bacteria. It is necessary to clearly define the molecular, functional and genetic bases of the efflux pump in order to understand the translocation of antibiotic molecules through the efflux transporter. The recent investigation on the efflux pump AcrB at its structural and physiological levels, including the identification of drug affinity sites and kinetic parameters for various antibiotics, may pave the way towards the rational development of an improved new generation of antibacterial agents as well as efflux inhibitors in order to efficiently combat efflux-based resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Nikaido
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Bolla JM, Alibert-Franco S, Handzlik J, Chevalier J, Mahamoud A, Boyer G, Kieć-Kononowicz K, Pagès JM. Strategies for bypassing the membrane barrier in multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:1682-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2011] [Revised: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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