1
|
Giannuzzi G, Logsdon GA, Chatron N, Miller DE, Reversat J, Munson KM, Hoekzema K, Bonnet-Dupeyron MN, Rollat-Farnier PA, Baker CA, Sanlaville D, Eichler EE, Schluth-Bolard C, Reymond A. Alpha Satellite Insertion Close to an Ancestral Centromeric Region. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 38:5576-5587. [PMID: 34464971 PMCID: PMC8662618 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msab244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human centromeres are mainly composed of alpha satellite DNA hierarchically organized as higher-order repeats (HORs). Alpha satellite dynamics is shown by sequence homogenization in centromeric arrays and by its transfer to other centromeric locations, for example, during the maturation of new centromeres. We identified during prenatal aneuploidy diagnosis by fluorescent in situ hybridization a de novo insertion of alpha satellite DNA from the centromere of chromosome 18 (D18Z1) into cytoband 15q26. Although bound by CENP-B, this locus did not acquire centromeric functionality as demonstrated by the lack of constriction and the absence of CENP-A binding. The insertion was associated with a 2.8-kbp deletion and likely occurred in the paternal germline. The site was enriched in long terminal repeats and located ∼10 Mbp from the location where a centromere was ancestrally seeded and became inactive in the common ancestor of humans and apes 20-25 million years ago. Long-read mapping to the T2T-CHM13 human genome assembly revealed that the insertion derives from a specific region of chromosome 18 centromeric 12-mer HOR array in which the monomer size follows a regular pattern. The rearrangement did not directly disrupt any gene or predicted regulatory element and did not alter the methylation status of the surrounding region, consistent with the absence of phenotypic consequences in the carrier. This case demonstrates a likely rare but new class of structural variation that we name "alpha satellite insertion." It also expands our knowledge on alphoid DNA dynamics and conveys the possibility that alphoid arrays can relocate near vestigial centromeric sites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giuliana Giannuzzi
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Glennis A Logsdon
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Nicolas Chatron
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, University of Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Danny E Miller
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Genetic Medicine, University of Washington and Seattle Children’s Hospital, Seattle, WA
| | - Julie Reversat
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Katherine M Munson
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Kendra Hoekzema
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | | | - Pierre-Antoine Rollat-Farnier
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- Cellule Bioinformatique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Carl A Baker
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Damien Sanlaville
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, University of Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Evan E Eichler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Caroline Schluth-Bolard
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, University of Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Alexandre Reymond
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang K, de la Torre D, Robertson WE, Chin JW. Programmed chromosome fission and fusion enable precise large-scale genome rearrangement and assembly. Science 2020; 365:922-926. [PMID: 31467221 DOI: 10.1126/science.aay0737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The design and creation of synthetic genomes provide a powerful approach to understanding and engineering biology. However, it is often limited by the paucity of methods for precise genome manipulation. Here, we demonstrate the programmed fission of the Escherichia coli genome into diverse pairs of synthetic chromosomes and the programmed fusion of synthetic chromosomes to generate genomes with user-defined inversions and translocations. We further combine genome fission, chromosome transplant, and chromosome fusion to assemble genomic regions from different strains into a single genome. Thus, we program the scarless assembly of new genomes with nucleotide precision, a key step in the convergent synthesis of genomes from diverse progenitors. This work provides a set of precise, rapid, large-scale (megabase) genome-engineering operations for creating diverse synthetic genomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaihang Wang
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, England, UK
| | - Daniel de la Torre
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, England, UK
| | - Wesley E Robertson
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, England, UK
| | - Jason W Chin
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, England, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Evolutionary Dynamics of the POTE Gene Family in Human and Nonhuman Primates. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11020213. [PMID: 32085667 PMCID: PMC7073761 DOI: 10.3390/genes11020213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
POTE (prostate, ovary, testis, and placenta expressed) genes belong to a primate-specific gene family expressed in prostate, ovary, and testis as well as in several cancers including breast, prostate, and lung cancers. Due to their tumor-specific expression, POTEs are potential oncogenes, therapeutic targets, and biomarkers for these malignancies. This gene family maps within human and primate segmental duplications with a copy number ranging from two to 14 in different species. Due to the high sequence identity among the gene copies, specific efforts are needed to assemble these loci in order to correctly define the organization and evolution of the gene family. Using single-molecule, real-time (SMRT) sequencing, in silico analyses, and molecular cytogenetics, we characterized the structure, copy number, and chromosomal distribution of the POTE genes, as well as their expression in normal and disease tissues, and provided a comparative analysis of the POTE organization and gene structure in primate genomes. We were able, for the first time, to de novo sequence and assemble a POTE tandem duplication in marmoset that is misassembled and collapsed in the reference genome, thus revealing the presence of a second POTE copy. Taken together, our findings provide comprehensive insights into the evolutionary dynamics of the primate-specific POTE gene family, involving gene duplications, deletions, and long interspersed nuclear element (LINE) transpositions to explain the actual repertoire of these genes in human and primate genomes.
Collapse
|
4
|
Maggiolini FAM, Cantsilieris S, D’Addabbo P, Manganelli M, Coe BP, Dumont BL, Sanders AD, Pang AWC, Vollger MR, Palumbo O, Palumbo P, Accadia M, Carella M, Eichler EE, Antonacci F. Genomic inversions and GOLGA core duplicons underlie disease instability at the 15q25 locus. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008075. [PMID: 30917130 PMCID: PMC6436712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human chromosome 15q25 is involved in several disease-associated structural rearrangements, including microdeletions and chromosomal markers with inverted duplications. Using comparative fluorescence in situ hybridization, strand-sequencing, single-molecule, real-time sequencing and Bionano optical mapping analyses, we investigated the organization of the 15q25 region in human and nonhuman primates. We found that two independent inversions occurred in this region after the fission event that gave rise to phylogenetic chromosomes XIV and XV in humans and great apes. One of these inversions is still polymorphic in the human population today and may confer differential susceptibility to 15q25 microdeletions and inverted duplications. The inversion breakpoints map within segmental duplications containing core duplicons of the GOLGA gene family and correspond to the site of an ancestral centromere, which became inactivated about 25 million years ago. The inactivation of this centromere likely released segmental duplications from recombination repression typical of centromeric regions. We hypothesize that this increased the frequency of ectopic recombination creating a hotspot of hominid inversions where dispersed GOLGA core elements now predispose this region to recurrent genomic rearrangements associated with disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stuart Cantsilieris
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Pietro D’Addabbo
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Manganelli
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Bradley P. Coe
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Beth L. Dumont
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States of America
| | - Ashley D. Sanders
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Meyerhofstraße 1, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Mitchell R. Vollger
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Orazio Palumbo
- Medical Genetics Unit, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy
| | - Pietro Palumbo
- Medical Genetics Unit, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy
| | - Maria Accadia
- Medical Genetics Service, Hospital “Cardinale G. Panico”, Via San Pio X n°4, Tricase, LE, Italy
| | - Massimo Carella
- Medical Genetics Unit, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy
| | - Evan E. Eichler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Francesca Antonacci
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Udall JA, Long E, Ramaraj T, Conover JL, Yuan D, Grover CE, Gong L, Arick MA, Masonbrink RE, Peterson DG, Wendel JF. The Genome Sequence of Gossypioides kirkii Illustrates a Descending Dysploidy in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1541. [PMID: 31827481 PMCID: PMC6890844 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
One of the extraordinary aspects of plant genome evolution is variation in chromosome number, particularly that among closely related species. This is exemplified by the cotton genus (Gossypium) and its relatives, where most species and genera have a base chromosome number of 13. The two exceptions are sister genera that have n = 12 (the Hawaiian Kokia and the East African and Madagascan Gossypioides). We generated a high-quality genome sequence of Gossypioides kirkii (n = 12) using PacBio, Bionano, and Hi-C technologies, and compared this assembly to genome sequences of Kokia (n = 12) and Gossypium diploids (n = 13). Previous analysis demonstrated that the directionality of their reduced chromosome number was through large structural rearrangements. A series of structural rearrangements were identified comparing the de novo G. kirkii genome sequence to genome sequences of Gossypium, including chromosome fusions and inversions. Genome comparison between G. kirkii and Gossypium suggests that multiple steps are required to generate the extant structural differences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A. Udall
- Crop Germplasm Research, USDA, College Station, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Joshua A. Udall, ; Jonathan F. Wendel,
| | - Evan Long
- Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Thiruvarangan Ramaraj
- National Center of Genome Resources, Santa Fe, NM, United States
- School of Computing, DePaul University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | | | - Daojun Yuan
- EEOB Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | | | - Lei Gong
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Mark A. Arick
- Institute for Genomics, Biocomputing & Biotechnology, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Rick E. Masonbrink
- Genome Informatics Facility, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Daniel G. Peterson
- Institute for Genomics, Biocomputing & Biotechnology, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States
| | - Jonathan F. Wendel
- EEOB Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
- *Correspondence: Joshua A. Udall, ; Jonathan F. Wendel,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Background Recently, Pereira Zanetti, Biller and Meidanis have proposed a new definition of a rearrangement distance between genomes. In this formulation, each genome is represented as a matrix, and the distance d is the rank distance between these matrices. Although defined in terms of matrices, the rank distance is equal to the minimum total weight of a series of weighted operations that leads from one genome to the other, including inversions, translocations, transpositions, and others. The computational complexity of the median-of-three problem according to this distance is currently unknown. The genome matrices are a special kind of permutation matrices, which we study in this paper. In their paper, the authors provide an \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$O\left (n^{3}\right)$\end{document}On3 algorithm for determining three candidate medians, prove the tight approximation ratio \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$\frac {4}{3}$\end{document}43, and provide a sufficient condition for their candidates to be true medians. They also conduct some experiments that suggest that their method is accurate on simulated and real data. Results In this paper, we extend their results and provide the following:
Three invariants characterizing the problem of finding the median of 3 matrices A sufficient condition for uniqueness of medians that can be checked in O(n) A faster, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$O\left (n^{2}\right)$\end{document}On2 algorithm for determining the median under this condition A new heuristic algorithm for this problem based on compressed sensing A \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$O\left (n^{4}\right)$\end{document}On4 algorithm that exactly solves the problem when the inputs are orthogonal matrices, a class that includes both permutations and genomes as special cases.
Conclusions Our work provides the first proof that, with respect to the rank distance, the problem of finding the median of 3 genomes, as well as the median of 3 permutations, is exactly solvable in polynomial time, a result which should be contrasted with its NP-hardness for the DCJ (double cut-and-join) distance and most other families of genome rearrangement operations. This result, backed by our experimental tests, indicates that the rank distance is a viable alternative to the DCJ distance widely used in genome comparisons. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12859-018-2131-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
|
7
|
The 14/15 association as a paradigmatic example of tracing karyotype evolution in New World monkeys. Chromosoma 2015; 125:747-56. [DOI: 10.1007/s00412-015-0565-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
8
|
Palindromic GOLGA8 core duplicons promote chromosome 15q13.3 microdeletion and evolutionary instability. Nat Genet 2014; 46:1293-302. [PMID: 25326701 PMCID: PMC4244265 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent deletions of chromosome 15q13.3 associate with intellectual disability, schizophrenia, autism and epilepsy. To gain insight into its instability, we sequenced the region in patients, normal individuals and nonhuman primates. We discovered five structural configurations of the human chromosome 15q13.3 region ranging in size from 2 to 3 Mbp. These configurations arose recently (~0.5–0.9 million years ago) as a result of human-specific expansions of segmental duplications and two independent inversion events. All inversion breakpoints map near GOLGA8 core duplicons—a ~14 kbp primate-specific chromosome 15 repeat that became organized into larger palindromic structures. GOLGA8-flanked palindromes also demarcate the breakpoints of recurrent 15q13.3 microdeletions, the expansion of chromosome 15 segmental duplications in the human lineage, and independent structural changes in apes. The significant clustering (p=0.002) of breakpoints provides mechanistic evidence for the role of this core duplicon and its palindromic architecture in promoting evolutionary and disease-related instability of chromosome 15.
Collapse
|
9
|
Ebert G, Steininger A, Weißmann R, Boldt V, Lind-Thomsen A, Grune J, Badelt S, Heßler M, Peiser M, Hitzler M, Jensen LR, Müller I, Hu H, Arndt PF, Kuss AW, Tebel K, Ullmann R. Distribution of segmental duplications in the context of higher order chromatin organisation of human chromosome 7. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:537. [PMID: 24973960 PMCID: PMC4092221 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Segmental duplications (SDs) are not evenly distributed along chromosomes. The reasons for this biased susceptibility to SD insertion are poorly understood. Accumulation of SDs is associated with increased genomic instability, which can lead to structural variants and genomic disorders such as the Williams-Beuren syndrome. Despite these adverse effects, SDs have become fixed in the human genome. Focusing on chromosome 7, which is particularly rich in interstitial SDs, we have investigated the distribution of SDs in the context of evolution and the three dimensional organisation of the chromosome in order to gain insights into the mutual relationship of SDs and chromatin topology. RESULTS Intrachromosomal SDs preferentially accumulate in those segments of chromosome 7 that are homologous to marmoset chromosome 2. Although this formerly compact segment has been re-distributed to three different sites during primate evolution, we can show by means of public data on long distance chromatin interactions that these three intervals, and consequently the paralogous SDs mapping to them, have retained their spatial proximity in the nucleus. Focusing on SD clusters implicated in the aetiology of the Williams-Beuren syndrome locus we demonstrate by cross-species comparison that these SDs have inserted at the borders of a topological domain and that they flank regions with distinct DNA conformation. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests a link of nuclear architecture and the propagation of SDs across chromosome 7, either by promoting regional SD insertion or by contributing to the establishment of higher order chromatin organisation themselves. The latter could compensate for the high risk of structural rearrangements and thus may have contributed to their evolutionary fixation in the human genome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grit Ebert
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- />Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Free University Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anne Steininger
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- />Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Free University Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Weißmann
- />Department of Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, and Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, University of Greifswald, Fleischmannstraße 42-44, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Vivien Boldt
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- />Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Free University Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Allan Lind-Thomsen
- />Wilhelm Johannsen Centre for Functional Genome Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jana Grune
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Badelt
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- />Institute for Theoretical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Straße 17, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Melanie Heßler
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Peiser
- />Unit Experimental Research, Department of Product Safety, Federal Institute for Bundeswehr Institute of Radiobiology affiliated, the University of Ulm, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Manuel Hitzler
- />Unit Experimental Research, Department of Product Safety, Federal Institute for Bundeswehr Institute of Radiobiology affiliated, the University of Ulm, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Lars R Jensen
- />Department of Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, and Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, University of Greifswald, Fleischmannstraße 42-44, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Ines Müller
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hao Hu
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter F Arndt
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas W Kuss
- />Department of Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, and Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, University of Greifswald, Fleischmannstraße 42-44, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Katrin Tebel
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Reinhard Ullmann
- />Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|