1
|
Kreutzmann JC, Kahl E, Fendt M. Sex-specific modulation of safety learning in Shank2-deficient mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 132:110973. [PMID: 38369099 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.110973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired perceptual processing and social communication, intellectual disabilities, and repetitive behaviors. Interestingly, while not a core symptom, anxiety disorders frequently co-occur in individuals with ASD and deficits in safety learning have been described in patients with anxiety-related disorders. Because genetic factors, such as SHANK deficiency (loss-of-function mutations), have been linked to ASD, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether Shank2 deficiency interferes with associative fear and safety signal learning. To first investigate trait anxiety, male and female Shank2-deficient mice were exposed to a light-dark box test. Mice were then submitted to a combination of contextual fear conditioning and single-cue safety conditioning. The results show that Shank2 deficiency increases trait anxiety but reduces contextual fear learning. In male but not female Shank2-deficient mice, reduced single-cued safety learning was observed. This safety learning deficit was not caused by altered anxiety levels, increased locomotor activity, or reduced contextual fear since these changes were also observed in female Shank2-deficient mice. Concluding, our data indicate that the observed safety learning deficits in Shank2-deficient male mice could contribute to the emotional symptoms observed in ASD and the high comorbidity with anxiety-related disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Judith C Kreutzmann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany.; Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Evelyn Kahl
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany.; Center of Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
El Matine R, Kreutzmann JC, Fendt M. Chronic unilateral inhibition of GABA synthesis in the amygdala increases specificity of conditioned fear in a discriminative fear conditioning paradigm in rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2023; 124:110732. [PMID: 36792003 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Neural activity in the amygdala is critical for fear learning. In anxiety disorder patients, bilateral hyperactivity of the amygdala can be observed. This hyperactivation is often associated with the facilitation of fear learning and/or over-generalization of conditioned fear. In contrast, hypoactivity of the amygdala, e.g. by pharmacological interventions, attenuates or blocks fear learning. To date, little is known about how neural excitability of the amygdala affects specificity or generalization of fear. Therefore, the present study utilized chronic inhibition of GABA synthesis in the amygdala to increase excitability and investigated the effect on the specificity of fear learning. In rats, unilateral cannulas aiming at the amygdala were implanted. The cannulas were connected to subcutaneously implanted osmotic mini pumps that delivered either the GABA synthesis inhibitor L-allylglycine or its inactive enantiomer D-allylglycine. Following one week of chronic GABA synthesis manipulation, the rats were submitted to a discriminative fear conditioning protocol. In addition, anxiety-like behavior in the light-dark box was measured. Our data show that chronic unilateral L-AG infusions into the amygdala improve the specificity of learned fear, support safety learning, and reduce fear generalization and anxiety. This data demonstrates that moderately increased amygdala excitability can be beneficial for the specificity of fear learning and highlights the potential application for therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rami El Matine
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Judith C Kreutzmann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bicakci AO, Sarkar M, Chang YH, Kahl E, Ragazzi L, Moldes-Anaya A, Fendt M. Anxiolytic-like Effects of the Positive GABAB Receptor Modulator GS39783 Correlate with Mice’s Individual Basal Anxiety and Stress Reactivity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15020233. [PMID: 35215345 PMCID: PMC8878184 DOI: 10.3390/ph15020233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Positive gamma-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor modulators such as GS39783 have showed anxiolytic-like effects in several studies while such effects were absent in other studies. These conflicting findings led us hypothesize that the anxiolytic-like effects of such compounds depend on the individual basal anxiety and/or the anxiogenic properties of the used tests. The present study addresses this hypothesis by testing GS39783 effects on mice’s anxiety-like behavior in a light–dark box. We found that GS39783 had no effects on a whole-group level. However, after grouping the mice for their basal anxiety, GS39783 reduced anxiety-like behavior in the subgroup with highest basal anxiety. Moreover, GS39783 effects correlated with individual basal anxiety. Next, the anxiogenic properties of the light–dark box test were increased by prior stress exposure. Again, GS39783 was not effective on a whole-group level. However, GS39783 had an anxiolytic-like effect in the most stress-responsive subgroup. Moreover, GS39783 effects correlated with individual stress responsiveness. Finally, we show that GS39783 brain levels were within a behaviorally relevant range. Overall, our study demonstrates that GS39783 effects depend on individual basal anxiety and stress responsiveness. This suggests that anxiety tests should generally be designed to capture individual basal anxiety and/or stress responsiveness as well as individual compound effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Oguzhan Bicakci
- Integrative Neuroscience Master Program, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (A.O.B.); (M.S.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany;
| | - Mousumi Sarkar
- Integrative Neuroscience Master Program, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (A.O.B.); (M.S.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany;
| | - Yu-Hsin Chang
- Integrative Neuroscience Master Program, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (A.O.B.); (M.S.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany;
| | - Evelyn Kahl
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany;
| | - Lorenzo Ragazzi
- Neurobiology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Angel Moldes-Anaya
- Nuclear Medicine and Radiation Biology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway;
- Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Unit, The PET Imaging Center, University Hospital of North Norway, 9038 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany;
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-391-67-21982
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
High trait anxiety in mice is associated with impaired extinction in the contextual fear conditioning paradigm. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2022; 190:107602. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2022.107602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
5
|
Willadsen M, Uengoer M, Sługocka A, Schwarting RK, Homberg JR, Wöhr M. Fear Extinction and Predictive Trait-Like Inter-Individual Differences in Rats Lacking the Serotonin Transporter. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22137088. [PMID: 34209318 PMCID: PMC8268876 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are associated with a failure to sufficiently extinguish fear memories. The serotonergic system (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) with the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT, SERT) is strongly implicated in the regulation of anxiety and fear. In the present study, we examined the effects of SERT deficiency on fear extinction in a differential fear conditioning paradigm in male and female rats. Fear-related behavior displayed during acquisition, extinction, and recovery, was measured through quantification of immobility and alarm 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USV). Trait-like inter-individual differences in novelty-seeking, anxiety-related behavior, habituation learning, cognitive performance, and pain sensitivity were examined for their predictive value in forecasting fear extinction. Our results show that SERT deficiency strongly affected the emission of 22-kHz USV during differential fear conditioning. During acquisition, extinction, and recovery, SERT deficiency consistently led to a reduction in 22-kHz USV emission. While SERT deficiency did not affect immobility during acquisition, genotype differences started to emerge during extinction, and during recovery rats lacking SERT showed higher levels of immobility than wildtype littermate controls. Recovery was reflected in increased levels of immobility but not 22-kHz USV emission. Prominent sex differences were evident. Among several measures for trait-like inter-individual differences, anxiety-related behavior had the best predictive quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Willadsen
- Behavioral Neuroscience, Experimental and Biological Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Philipps-University of Marburg, Gutenberg-Str. 18, D-35032 Marburg, Germany; (M.W.); (R.K.W.S.)
| | - Metin Uengoer
- Associative Learning, Experimental and Biological Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Philipps-University of Marburg, Gutenberg-Str. 18, D-35032 Marburg, Germany;
| | - Anna Sługocka
- Department for Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 4, 40-752 Katowice, Poland;
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 18, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Rainer K.W. Schwarting
- Behavioral Neuroscience, Experimental and Biological Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Philipps-University of Marburg, Gutenberg-Str. 18, D-35032 Marburg, Germany; (M.W.); (R.K.W.S.)
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, Philipps-University of Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 6, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Judith R. Homberg
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Kapittelweg 29, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | - Markus Wöhr
- Behavioral Neuroscience, Experimental and Biological Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Philipps-University of Marburg, Gutenberg-Str. 18, D-35032 Marburg, Germany; (M.W.); (R.K.W.S.)
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, Philipps-University of Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 6, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Research Unit Brain and Cognition, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Social and Affective Neuroscience Research Group, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32–16–19–45–57
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fendt M, Gonzalez-Guerrero CP, Kahl E. Observational Fear Learning in Rats: Role of Trait Anxiety and Ultrasonic Vocalization. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11040423. [PMID: 33810488 PMCID: PMC8066558 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11040423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Rats can acquire fear by observing conspecifics that express fear in the presence of conditioned fear stimuli. This process is called observational fear learning and is based on the social transmission of the demonstrator rat’s emotion and the induction of an empathy-like or anxiety state in the observer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of trait anxiety and ultrasonic vocalization in observational fear learning. Two experiments with male Wistar rats were performed. In the first experiment, trait anxiety was assessed in a light–dark box test before the rats were submitted to the observational fear learning procedure. In the second experiment, ultrasonic vocalization was recorded throughout the whole observational fear learning procedure, and 22 kHz and 50 kHz calls were analyzed. The results of our study show that trait anxiety differently affects direct fear learning and observational fear learning. Direct fear learning was more pronounced with higher trait anxiety, while observational fear learning was the best with a medium-level of trait anxiety. There were no indications in the present study that ultrasonic vocalization, especially emission of 22 kHz calls, but also 50 kHz calls, are critical for observational fear learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (C.P.G.-G.); (E.K.)
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Claudia Paulina Gonzalez-Guerrero
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (C.P.G.-G.); (E.K.)
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Evelyn Kahl
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (C.P.G.-G.); (E.K.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Martín-Rodríguez F, Castro Villamor MA, López-Izquierdo R, Portillo Rubiales RM, Ortega GJ, Sanz-García A. Can anxiety in undergraduate students in a high-fidelity clinical simulation be predicted? A randomized, sham-controlled, blinded trial. NURSE EDUCATION TODAY 2021; 98:104774. [PMID: 33485162 DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2021.104774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION High-fidelity clinical simulation has implied a revolution in health science training. Despite its benefits, some drawbacks could hinder the learning process, especially the anxiety produced during such scenarios. OBJECTIVES The aim of the present work is to develop a predictive model capable of determining which students will present high levels of anxiety. DESIGN We performed a randomized, sham-controlled, blinded trial in which students were randomly assigned to four scenarios and played one of two possible roles. METHODS Before and after the simulation we assessed the anxiety level along with physiological and analytical parameters. The main analyzed outcome was an increase of ≥25% in anxiety compared with baseline. RESULTS The type of scenario or the role played had no effect on anxiety. The predictive model presented an Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristics of 0.798 (95% CI: 0.69-0.90; p < 0.001), with age and systolic blood pressure being protective factors against anxiety. CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that the anxiety level developed during simulation could be predicted. The application of this predictive model when associated to appropriate techniques to deal with increased anxiety levels could improve the learning process of medical students during simulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Martín-Rodríguez
- Faculty of Medicine, Valladolid University, Valladolid, Spain; Advanced Life Support, Emergency Medical Services, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Miguel A Castro Villamor
- Faculty of Medicine, Valladolid University, Valladolid, Spain; Community Health Center, La Cistérniga, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Raúl López-Izquierdo
- Faculty of Medicine, Valladolid University, Valladolid, Spain; Emergency Department, Hospital Universitario Rio Hortega, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Raquel M Portillo Rubiales
- Faculty of Medicine, Valladolid University, Valladolid, Spain; Community Health Center, La Cistérniga, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Guillermo J Ortega
- Data Analysis Unit, Health Research Institute, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid (IIS-IP), Spain; National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ancor Sanz-García
- Data Analysis Unit, Health Research Institute, Hospital de la Princesa, Madrid (IIS-IP), Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Individual expression of conditioned safety but not of conditioned relief is correlated with contextual fear. Behav Brain Res 2020; 393:112799. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
9
|
Kreutzmann JC, Khalil R, Köhler JC, Mayer D, Florido A, Nadal R, Andero R, Fendt M. Neuropeptide‐S‐receptor deficiency affects sex‐specific modulation of safety learning by pre‐exposure to electric stimuli. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2020; 19:e12621. [DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judith C. Kreutzmann
- Institute for Pharmacology & ToxicologyOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
- Department of Systems Physiology of LearningLeibniz Institute for Neurobiology Magdeburg Germany
| | - Radwa Khalil
- Institute for Pharmacology & ToxicologyOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
| | - Jana C. Köhler
- Institute of PhysiologyOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
- Center of Behavioral Brain SciencesOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
| | - Dana Mayer
- Institute for Pharmacology & ToxicologyOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
| | - Antonio Florido
- Institut de NeurocièncesUniversitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
| | - Roser Nadal
- Institut de NeurocièncesUniversitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
- CIBERSAMInstituto de Salud Carlos III, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
- Department of Psychobiology and Methodology in Health SciencesUniversitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
| | - Raül Andero
- Institut de NeurocièncesUniversitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
- CIBERSAMInstituto de Salud Carlos III, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
- Department of Psychobiology and Methodology in Health SciencesUniversitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra Spain
| | - Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology & ToxicologyOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
- Center of Behavioral Brain SciencesOtto‐von‐Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kreutzmann JC, Jovanovic T, Fendt M. Infralimbic cortex activity is required for the expression but not the acquisition of conditioned safety. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2161-2172. [PMID: 32363439 PMCID: PMC7306044 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05527-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability to discriminate between danger and safety is crucial for survival across species. Whereas danger signals predict the onset of a potentially threatening event, safety signals indicate the non-occurrence of an aversive event, thereby reducing fear and stress responses. While the neural basis of conditioned safety remains to be elucidated, fear extinction studies provide evidence that the infralimbic cortex (IL) modulates fear inhibition. In the current study, the IL was temporarily inactivated with local muscimol injections in male and female rats. The effect of IL inactivation on the acquisition and expression of conditioned safety was investigated utilizing the startle response. Temporary inactivation of the IL prior to conditioning did not affect the acquisition of conditioned safety, whereas IL inactivation during the expression test completely blocked the expression of conditioned safety in male and female rats. Inactivation of the neighboring prelimbic (PL) cortex during the expression test did not affect the expression of safety memory. Our findings suggest that the IL is a critical brain region for the expression of safety memory. Because patients suffering from anxiety disorders are often unable to make use of safety cues to inhibit fear, the present findings are of clinical relevance and could potentially contribute to therapy optimization of anxiety-related psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Judith C Kreutzmann
- Medical Faculty, Institute for Pharmacology & Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University Detroit, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Markus Fendt
- Medical Faculty, Institute for Pharmacology & Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|