Mapping of In Vivo RNA-Binding Sites by Ultraviolet (UV)-Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP)

YTHDC2 control of gametogenesis requires helicase activity but not m6A binding

Mechanisms regulating meiotic progression in mammals are poorly understood. The N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) reader and 3' → 5' RNA helicase YTHDC2 switches cells from mitotic to meiotic gene expression programs and is essential for meiotic entry, but how this critical cell fate change is accomplished is unknown. Here, we provide insight into its mechanism and implicate YTHDC2 in having a broad role in gene regulation during multiple meiotic stages. Unexpectedly, mutation of the m⁶A-binding pocket of YTHDC2 had no detectable effect on gametogenesis and mouse fertility, suggesting that YTHDC2 function is m⁶A-independent. Supporting this conclusion, CLIP data defined YTHDC2-binding sites on mRNA as U-rich and UG-rich motif-containing regions within 3' UTRs and coding sequences, distinct from the sites that contain m⁶A during spermatogenesis. Complete loss of YTHDC2 during meiotic entry did not substantially alter translation of its mRNA binding targets in whole-testis ribosome profiling assays but did modestly affect their steady-state levels. Mutation of the ATPase motif in the helicase domain of YTHDC2 did not affect meiotic entry, but it blocked meiotic prophase I progression, causing sterility. Our findings inform a model in which YTHDC2 binds transcripts independent of m⁶A status and regulates gene expression during multiple stages of meiosis by distinct mechanisms.

Cataloguing and Selection of mRNAs Localized to Dendrites in Neurons and Regulated by RNA-Binding Proteins in RNA Granules

Spatiotemporal translational regulation plays a key role in determining cell fate and function. Specifically, in neurons, local translation in dendrites is essential for synaptic plasticity and long-term memory formation. To achieve local translation, RNA-binding proteins in RNA granules regulate target mRNA stability, localization, and translation. To date, mRNAs localized to dendrites have been identified by comprehensive analyses. In addition, mRNAs associated with and regulated by RNA-binding proteins have been identified using various methods in many studies. However, the results obtained from these numerous studies have not been compiled together. In this review, we have catalogued mRNAs that are localized to dendrites and are associated with and regulated by the RNA-binding proteins fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), RNA granule protein 105 (RNG105, also known as Caprin1), Ras-GAP SH3 domain binding protein (G3BP), cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein 1 (CPEB1), and staufen double-stranded RNA binding proteins 1 and 2 (Stau1 and Stau2) in RNA granules. This review provides comprehensive information on dendritic mRNAs, the neuronal functions of mRNA-encoded proteins, the association of dendritic mRNAs with RNA-binding proteins in RNA granules, and the effects of RNA-binding proteins on mRNA regulation. These findings provide insights into the mechanistic basis of protein-synthesis-dependent synaptic plasticity and memory formation and contribute to future efforts to understand the physiological implications of local regulation of dendritic mRNAs in neurons.

Ultraviolet (UV) Cross-Linking of Live Cells, Lysate Preparation, and RNase Titration for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP)

One of the great advantages of RNA CLIP (cross-linking immunoprecipitation) is that RNA-protein complexes can be "frozen" in situ in live cells by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This protocol describes UV cross-linking of mammalian tissue culture cells or whole tissues. For the latter, the tissue is typically triturated to allow UV penetration. However, depending on the thickness of the chosen tissue, this may not be necessary. It is preferable to handle the tissue as little as possible, to keep it in ice-cold buffers, and to cross-link as soon after the time of collection as is feasible to preserve native interactions at the time of cross-linking. This protocol also describes cell lysis following cross-linking, as well as treatment with RNase to partially hydrolyze the bound RNA. The first time this protocol is performed, a pilot experiment should be performed to determine the optimal RNase concentration for the particular sample. Once the RNase conditions are optimized this section of CLIP protocol can be repeated on experimental samples before proceeding through the rest of the protocol.

Immunoprecipitation and SDS-PAGE for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP)

This first part of this protocol is designed to optimize purification of the RNABP by immunoprecipitation for cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP) experiments. The key variables to assess are the quality and quantity of antibody needed to immunoprecipitate most but not quite all of the RNABP (the titration will decrease nonspecific binding), and the tolerance of the antibody:antigen interaction to stringent wash conditions. The results of these experiments can be checked first by western blot, and subsequently using the pilot CLIP protocol described in the second half of this protocol. RNase-treated cross-linked RNABP:RNA complexes from mixed lysates or cell pellets are immunoprecipitated using conditions optimized in the first half of the protocol. 3' Linkers are added, the RNA is radiolabeled, and the complexes are purified on SDS-PAGE. The pilot experiment will identify the optimal RNase concentration for the particular sample and will assess the quality and purity of the RNABP-RNA complexes following labeling of the RNA tags with ³²P. This can be done without ligation of the 3' linker as described in the main protocol below. The pilot experiment assesses whether sufficient RNA-protein complexes can be detected by autoradiography and whether contaminating RNA ligands are present in immunoprecipitations compared with control samples. Once it is confirmed that the signal-to-noise ratio for detection of RNA-protein complexes after immunoprecipitation is sufficient, the optimal immunoprecipitation conditions should be incorporated into the general CLIP protocol including the steps of cross-linking, RNase digestion, linker ligation, and labeling of RNA "tags," and the results analyzed by autoradiography.

3'-Linker Ligation and Size Selection by SDS-PAGE for Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP)

This protocol describes the purification by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of RNA linkers for cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP). Purification is necessary because if the 3' linker loses the puromycin blocking group, concatemerization of the 3' linker will occur during the 3' linker ligation reaction. In addition, truncated linkers make bioinformatic processing of the sequencing results more difficult than it need be. Additionally, this protocol describes the treatment of coimmunoprecipitated RNA tags for CLIP with alkaline phosphatase to remove the 3' phosphate remaining after RNase digestion. Dephosphorylation prevents intramolecular circularization of RNA during subsequent ligation to the linker. The purified RNA linker, blocked with puromycin at its 3' end to prevent linker-linker multimerization, is then ligated to the 3' end of the RNA tag. Removal of free linker is accomplished by performing the ligation while the RNABP:RNA complex is associated, via antibody, to protein A Dynabeads, allowing thorough washing and linker removal. Additional purification is achieved by SDS-PAGE and transfer of the size-selected RNABP:RNA complexes to nitrocellulose.

Isolation of the RNA Cross-Linking Immunoprecipitation (CLIP) Tags, 5'-Linker Ligation, Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) Amplification, and Sequencing

This protocol describes purification of RNA cross-linking immunoprecipitation (CLIP) tags by proteinase K digestion of the cross-linked protein, addition of a 5' linker to the RNA tags, and amplification of the product by transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Use of this protocol adds another important purification step: sizing of the PCR products to enrich for those derived from RNA originally cross-linked to the desired RNABP. Finally, sequencing of the PCR products is described. There are two strategies for sequencing the PCR products of "CLIPed" RNA. Low-throughput sequencing involves cloning of PCR products, conventional minipreps, and sequencing. This can be performed on the PCR products generated here using standard protocols for A-tailing the PCR product and TA-cloning. This may be a worthwhile strategy when analyzing a small number of clones. In general, particularly in light of falling costs, high-throughput sequencing is the preferred method for sequencing the products of CLIPed RNA. This protocol describes a method for reamplifying PCR products with primers suitable for use on Illumina's Solexa platform. Although this protocol is specific to the Illumina deep-sequencing platform, similar schemes for reamplification of the initial PCR products can be used to add platform-specific sequences to the termini of the PCR-amplified DNA.