Live cell imaging in Drosophila melanogaster

Characterization of a novel stimulus-induced glial calcium wave in Drosophila larval peripheral segmental nerves and its role in PKG-modulated thermoprotection

Insects, as poikilotherms, have adaptations to deal with wide ranges in temperature fluctuation. Allelic variations in the foraging gene that encodes a cGMP dependent protein kinase, were discovered to have effects on behavior in Drosophila by Dr. Marla Sokolowski in 1980. This single gene has many pleiotropic effects and influences feeding behavior, metabolic storage, learning and memory and has been shown to affect stress tolerance. PKG regulation affects motoneuronal thermotolerance in Drosophila larvae as well as adults. While the focus of thermotolerance studies has been on the modulation of neuronal function, other cell types have been overlooked. Because glia are vital to neuronal function and survival, we wanted to determine if glia play a role in thermotolerance as well. In our investigation, we discovered a novel calcium wave at the larval NMJ and set out to characterize the wave's dynamics and the potential mechanism underlying the wave prior to determining what effect, if any, PKG modulation has on the thermotolerance of glia cells. Using pharmacology, we determined that calcium buffering mechanisms of the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum play a role in the propagation of our novel glial calcium wave. By coupling pharmacology with genetic manipulation using RNA interference (RNAi), we found that PKG modulation in glia alters thermoprotection of function as well as glial calcium wave dynamics.

Drosophila Sex Peptide controls the assembly of lipid microcarriers in seminal fluid

Seminal fluid plays an essential role in promoting male reproductive success and modulating female physiology and behavior. In the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, Sex Peptide (SP) is the best-characterized protein mediator of these effects. It is secreted from the paired male accessory glands (AGs), which, like the mammalian prostate and seminal vesicles, generate most of the seminal fluid contents. After mating, SP binds to spermatozoa and is retained in the female sperm storage organs. It is gradually released by proteolytic cleavage and induces several long-term postmating responses, including increased ovulation, elevated feeding, and reduced receptivity to remating, primarily signaling through the SP receptor (SPR). Here, we demonstrate a previously unsuspected SPR-independent function for SP. We show that, in the AG lumen, SP and secreted proteins with membrane-binding anchors are carried on abundant, large neutral lipid-containing microcarriers, also found in other SP-expressing Drosophila species. These microcarriers are transferred to females during mating where they rapidly disassemble. Remarkably, SP is a key microcarrier assembly and disassembly factor. Its absence leads to major changes in the seminal proteome transferred to females upon mating. Males expressing nonfunctional SP mutant proteins that affect SP's binding to and release from sperm in females also do not produce normal microcarriers, suggesting that this male-specific defect contributes to the resulting widespread abnormalities in ejaculate function. Our data therefore reveal a role for SP in formation of seminal macromolecular assemblies, which may explain the presence of SP in Drosophila species that lack the signaling functions seen in Dmelanogaster.

An Immobilization Technique for Long-Term Time-Lapse Imaging of Explanted Drosophila Tissues

Time-lapse imaging is an essential tool to study dynamic biological processes that cannot be discerned from fixed samples alone. However, imaging cell- and tissue-level processes in intact animals poses numerous challenges if the organism is opaque and/or motile. Explant cultures of intact tissues circumvent some of these challenges, but sample drift remains a considerable obstacle. We employed a simple yet effective technique to immobilize tissues in medium-bathed agarose. We applied this technique to study multiple Drosophila tissues from first-instar larvae to adult stages in various orientations and with no evidence of anisotropic pressure or stress damage. Using this method, we were able to image fine features for up to 18 h and make novel observations. Specifically, we report that fibers characteristic of quiescent neuroblasts are inherited by their basal daughters during reactivation; that the lamina in the developing visual system is assembled roughly 2-3 columns at a time; that lamina glia positions are dynamic during development; and that the nuclear envelopes of adult testis cyst stem cells do not break down completely during mitosis. In all, we demonstrate that our protocol is well-suited for tissue immobilization and long-term live imaging, enabling new insights into tissue and cell dynamics in Drosophila.

Glutamine deprivation alters the origin and function of cancer cell exosomes

Exosomes are secreted extracellular vesicles carrying diverse molecular cargos, which can modulate recipient cell behaviour. They are thought to derive from intraluminal vesicles formed in late endosomal multivesicular bodies (MVBs). An alternate exosome formation mechanism, which is conserved from fly to human, is described here, with exosomes carrying unique cargos, including the GTPase Rab11, generated in Rab11-positive recycling endosomal MVBs. Release of Rab11-positive exosomes from cancer cells is increased relative to late endosomal exosomes by reducing growth regulatory Akt/mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) signalling or depleting the key metabolic substrate glutamine, which diverts membrane flux through recycling endosomes. Vesicles produced under these conditions promote tumour cell proliferation and turnover and modulate blood vessel networks in xenograft mouse models in vivo. Their growth-promoting activity, which is also observed in vitro, is Rab11a-dependent, involves ERK-MAPK-signalling and is inhibited by antibodies against amphiregulin, an EGFR ligand concentrated on these vesicles. Therefore, glutamine depletion or mTORC1 inhibition stimulates release from Rab11a compartments of exosomes with pro-tumorigenic functions, which we propose promote stress-induced tumour adaptation.

Automated Macro Approach to Remove Vitelline Membrane Autofluorescence in Drosophila Embryo 4D Movies

This chapter provides an ImageJ/Fiji automated macro approach to remove the vitelline membrane autofluorescence in live Drosophila embryo movies acquired in a 4D (3D plus time) fashion. The procedure consists in a segmentation pipeline that can cope with different relative intensities of the vitelline membrane autofluorescence, followed by a developed algorithm that adjusts the extracted outline selection to the shape deformations that naturally occur during Drosophila embryo development. Finally, the fitted selection is used to clear the external glowing halo that, otherwise, would obscure the visualization of the internal embryo labeling upon projection or 3D rendering.

Live-cell confocal microscopy and quantitative 4D image analysis of anchor-cell invasion through the basement membrane in Caenorhabditis elegans

Cell invasion through basement membrane (BM) barriers is crucial in development, leukocyte trafficking and the spread of cancer. The mechanisms that direct invasion, despite their importance in normal and disease states, are poorly understood, largely because of the inability to visualize dynamic cell-BM interactions in vivo. This protocol describes multichannel time-lapse confocal imaging of anchor-cell invasion in live Caenorhabditis elegans. Methods presented include outline-slide preparation and worm growth synchronization (15 min), mounting (20 min), image acquisition (20-180 min), image processing (20 min) and quantitative analysis (variable timing). The acquired images enable direct measurement of invasive dynamics including formation of invadopodia and cell-membrane protrusions, and removal of BM. This protocol can be combined with genetic analysis, molecular-activity probes and optogenetic approaches to uncover the molecular mechanisms underlying cell invasion. These methods can also be readily adapted by any worm laboratory for real-time analysis of cell migration, BM turnover and cell-membrane dynamics.

Fixed and live visualization of RNAs in Drosophila oocytes and embryos

The ability to visualize RNA in situ is essential to dissect mechanisms for the temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression that drives development. Although considerable attention has been focused on transcriptional control, studies in model organisms like Drosophila have highlighted the importance of post-transcriptional mechanisms - most notably intracellular mRNA localization - in the formation and patterning of the body axes, specification of cell fates, and polarized cell functions. Our understanding of both types of regulation has been greatly advanced by technological innovations that enable a combination of highly quantitative and dynamic analysis of RNA. This review presents two methods, single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization for high resolution quantitative RNA detection in fixed Drosophila oocytes and embryos and genetically encoded fluorescent RNA labeling for detection in live cells.

Assessing resolution in super-resolution imaging

Resolution is a central concept in all imaging fields, and particularly in optical microscopy, but it can be easily misinterpreted. The mathematical definition of optical resolution was codified by Abbe, and practically defined by the Rayleigh Criterion in the late 19th century. The limit of conventional resolution was also achieved in this period, and it was thought that fundamental constraints of physics prevented further increases in resolution. With the recent development of a range of super-resolution techniques, it is necessary to revisit the concept of optical resolution. Fundamental differences in super-resolution modalities mean that resolution is not a directly transferrable metric between techniques. This article considers the issues in resolution raised by these new technologies, and presents approaches for comparing resolution between different super-resolution methods.

A single and rapid calcium wave at egg activation in Drosophila

Activation is an essential process that accompanies fertilisation in all animals and heralds major cellular changes, most notably, resumption of the cell cycle. While activation involves wave-like oscillations in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in mammals, ascidians and polychaete worms and a single Ca(2+) peak in fish and frogs, in insects, such as Drosophila, to date, it has not been shown what changes in intracellular Ca(2+) levels occur. Here, we utilise ratiometric imaging of Ca(2+) indicator dyes and genetically encoded Ca(2+) indicator proteins to identify and characterise a single, rapid, transient wave of Ca(2+) in the Drosophila egg at activation. Using genetic tools, physical manipulation and pharmacological treatments we demonstrate that the propagation of the Ca(2+) wave requires an intact actin cytoskeleton and an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) can be uncoupled from egg swelling, but not from progression of the cell cycle. We further show that mechanical pressure alone is not sufficient to initiate a Ca(2+) wave. We also find that processing bodies, sites of mRNA decay and translational regulation, become dispersed following the Ca(2+) transient. Based on this data we propose the following model for egg activation in Drosophila: exposure to lateral oviduct fluid initiates an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) at the egg posterior via osmotic swelling, possibly through mechano-sensitive Ca(2+) channels; a single Ca(2+) wave then propagates in an actin dependent manner; this Ca(2+) wave co-ordinates key developmental events including resumption of the cell cycle and initiation of translation of mRNAs such as bicoid.

Drosophila Syncrip modulates the expression of mRNAs encoding key synaptic proteins required for morphology at the neuromuscular junction

Localized mRNA translation is thought to play a key role in synaptic plasticity, but the identity of the transcripts and the molecular mechanism underlying their function are still poorly understood. Here, we show that Syncrip, a regulator of localized translation in the Drosophila oocyte and a component of mammalian neuronal mRNA granules, is also expressed in the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction, where it regulates synaptic growth. We use RNA-immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing and qRT-PCR to show that Syncrip associates with a number of mRNAs encoding proteins with key synaptic functions, including msp-300, syd-1, neurexin-1, futsch, highwire, discs large, and α-spectrin. The protein levels of MSP-300, Discs large, and a number of others are significantly affected in syncrip null mutants. Furthermore, syncrip mutants show a reduction in MSP-300 protein levels and defects in muscle nuclear distribution characteristic of msp-300 mutants. Our results highlight a number of potential new players in localized translation during synaptic plasticity in the neuromuscular junction. We propose that Syncrip acts as a modulator of synaptic plasticity by regulating the translation of these key mRNAs encoding synaptic scaffolding proteins and other important components involved in synaptic growth and function.

Methods for studying planar cell polarity

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is the polarity of epithelial cells in the plane orthogonal to the apical-basal axis, and is controlled by a partially defined signaling system. PCP related signaling also plays roles in cell migration, tissue re-organization and stem cell differentiation during embryonic development, and later, in regeneration and repair. Aberrant signaling has been linked to a broad range of pathophysiologies including cancer, developmental defects, and neurological disorders. The deepest mechanistic insights have come from studies of PCP in Drosophila. In this chapter we review tools and methods to study PCP signaling in Drosophila epithelia, where it was found to involve asymmetric protein localization that is coordinated between adjacent cells. Such signaling has been most extensively studied in wing, eye, and abdomen, but also in other tissues such as leg and notum. In the adult fly, PCP is manifested in the coordinated direction of hairs and bristles, as well as the organization of ommatidia in the eye. The polarity of these structures is preceded by asymmetric localization of PCP signaling proteins at the apical junctions of epithelial cells. Based on genetic and molecular criteria, the proteins that govern PCP can be divided into distinct modules, including the core module, the Fat/Dachsous/Four-jointed (Fat/Ds/Fj) module (often referred to as the 'global' module) as well as tissue specific effector modules. Different tissues and tissue regions differ in their sensitivity to disturbances in the various modules of the PCP signaling system, leading to controversies about the interactions among the modules, and emphasizing the value of studying PCP in multiple contexts. Here, we review methods including those generally applicable, as well as some that are selectively useful for analyses of PCP in eye (including eye discs), wing (including wing discs), pupal and adult abdomen, and the cuticle of larvae and embryos.

Methods for studying oogenesis

Drosophila oogenesis is an excellent system for the study of developmental cell biology. Active areas of research include stem cell maintenance, gamete development, pattern formation, cytoskeletal regulation, intercellular communication, intercellular transport, cell polarity, cell migration, cell death, morphogenesis, cell cycle control, and many more. The large size and relatively simple organization of egg chambers make them ideally suited for microscopy of both living and fixed whole mount tissue. A wide range of tools is available for oogenesis research. Newly available shRNA transgenic lines provide an alternative to classic loss-of-function F2 screens and clonal screens. Gene expression can be specifically controlled in either germline or somatic cells using the Gal4/UAS system. Protein trap lines provide fluorescent tags of proteins expressed at endogenous levels for live imaging and screening backgrounds. This review provides information on many available reagents and key methods for research in oogenesis.

Towards 3D in silico modeling of the sea urchin embryonic development

Embryogenesis is a dynamic process with an intrinsic variability whose understanding requires the integration of molecular, genetic, and cellular dynamics. Biological circuits function over time at the level of single cells and require a precise analysis of the topology, temporality, and probability of events. Integrative developmental biology is currently looking for the appropriate strategies to capture the intrinsic properties of biological systems. The "-omic" approaches require disruption of the function of the biological circuit; they provide static information, with low temporal resolution and usually with population averaging that masks fast or variable features at the cellular scale and in a single individual. This data should be correlated with cell behavior as cells are the integrators of biological activity. Cellular dynamics are captured by the in vivo microscopy observation of live organisms. This can be used to reconstruct the 3D + time cell lineage tree to serve as the basis for modeling the organism's multiscale dynamics. We discuss here the progress that has been made in this direction, starting with the reconstruction over time of three-dimensional digital embryos from in toto time-lapse imaging. Digital specimens provide the means for a quantitative description of the development of model organisms that can be stored, shared, and compared. They open the way to in silico experimentation and to a more theoretical approach to biological processes. We show, with some unpublished results, how the proposed methodology can be applied to sea urchin species that have been model organisms in the field of classical embryology and modern developmental biology for over a century.

RNA:RNA interaction can enhance RNA localization in Drosophila oocytes

RNA localization is a key mechanism for targeting proteins to particular subcellular domains. Sequences necessary and sufficient for localization have been identified, but little is known about factors that affect its kinetics. Transcripts of gurken and the I factor, a non-LTR retrotransposon, colocalize at the nucleus in the dorso-antero corner of the Drosophila oocyte directed by localization signals, the GLS and ILS. I factor RNA localizes faster than gurken after injection into oocytes, due to a difference in the intrinsic localization ability of the GLS and ILS. The kinetics of localization of RNA containing the ILS are enhanced by the presence of a stem-loop, the A loop. This acts as an RNA:RNA interaction element in vivo and in vitro, and stimulates localization of RNA containing other localization signals. RNA:RNA interaction may be a general mechanism for modulating RNA localization and could allow an mRNA that lacks a localization signal to hitchhike on another RNA that has one.

Shining light on Drosophila oogenesis: live imaging of egg development

Drosophila oogenesis is a powerful model for the study of numerous questions in cell and developmental biology. In addition to its longstanding value as a genetically tractable model of organogenesis, recently it has emerged as an excellent system in which to combine genetics and live imaging. Rapidly improving ex vivo culture conditions, new fluorescent biosensors and photo-manipulation tools, and advances in microscopy have allowed direct observation in real time of processes such as stem cell self-renewal, collective cell migration, and polarized mRNA and protein transport. In addition, entirely new phenomena have been discovered, including revolution of the follicle within the basement membrane and oscillating assembly and disassembly of myosin on a polarized actin network, both of which contribute to elongating this tissue. This review focuses on recent advances in live-cell imaging techniques and the biological insights gleaned from live imaging of egg chamber development.

Isolation of Drosophila egg chambers for imaging

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is an important model for basic research into the molecular mechanisms underlying cell function and development, as well as a major biomedical research tool. A significant advantage of Drosophila is the ability to apply live cell imaging to a variety of living tissues that can be dissected and imaged in vivo, ex vivo, or in vitro. Drosophila egg chambers, for example, have proven to be a useful model system for studying border cell migration, Golgi unit transport, the rapid movement of mRNA and protein particles, and the role of microtubules in meiosis and oocyte differentiation. A crucial first step before imaging is preparation of the experimental material to ensure physiological relevance and to achieve the best conditions for image quality. Early- to mid-stage egg chambers cannot be mounted in an aqueous-based medium, because this causes a change in microtubule organization and follicle cell morphology. Such egg chambers survive better in Halocarbon oil, which allows free diffusion of oxygen, has low viscosity, and thus prevents dehydration and hypoxia. With a refractive index similar to glycerol, Halocarbon oil also has good optical properties for imaging. It also provides a good environment for injection and is particularly useful for long-term imaging of embryos. However, unlike with aqueous solutions, changes in the medium are not possible. This protocol describes the isolation of Drosophila egg chambers.

Drosophila macrophage preparation and screening

Drosophila plasmatocytes, also known as macrophages, are part of the Drosophila innate immune system and also have roles during development. In late-stage embryos, it is possible to image macrophage migration in situ during development and when they converge at sites of wounding. This protocol describes the isolation of macrophages from third instar Drosophila larvae. The macrophages can be cultured for several hours, and fluorescently labeled macrophages can be screened using a fluorescence-imaging system.

Collection and mounting of Drosophila embryos for imaging

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is an important model for basic research into the molecular mechanisms underlying cell function and development, as well as a major biomedical research tool. A significant advantage of Drosophila is the ability to apply live cell imaging to a variety of living tissues that can be dissected and imaged in vivo, ex vivo, or in vitro. For example, such imaging can be used for visual genetic screens such as analysis of morphological characteristics or of the distribution of fluorescently tagged proteins in living embryos. Indeed, Drosophila embryos have proven to be a useful model system for studying a variety of cellular processes such as asymmetric division, migration, wound healing, apoptosis, and fasciculation, as well as for tracking lipid droplet motility, protein recycling, fast mRNA transport, and the movement of chromosomal loci within individual cells. A crucial first step before imaging is preparation of the experimental material to ensure physiological relevance and to achieve the best conditions for image quality. Because it contributes to autofluorescence and lack of transparency, it is useful to remove the chorion before imaging by treating the embryos with bleach. This protocol describes the collection and mounting of Drosophila embryos for live cell imaging.

Drosophila larval fillet preparation and imaging of neurons

Drosophila is an established system in which to study synaptic development, function, and plasticity. A particular advantage of the larval neuromuscular system is its consistent well-defined segmental arrangement of neurons and muscle targets. Indeed, the motor neurons of the Drosophila central nervous system are particularly well characterized in terms of origin, identity, morphology, and electrophysiology, and have been used for studies on axonal transport of organelles, vesicle trafficking, and recycling. To facilitate the identification of nerves and synapses in vivo, specific fluorescent protein markers can be used. For example, UASmCD8-green fluorescent protein (GFP) and UASmyr-red fluorescent protein (RFP) both preferentially label plasma membranes, whereas Discs large (DLG) reveals synapses. Gal4 drivers can be used to target all neurons (e.g., elavGal4) or specifically label motor neurons (e.g., d42Gal4). This protocol describes the dissection of Drosophila larvae to isolate neurons for live cell imaging.