The S-ribonuclease gene of Petunia hybrida is expressed in nonstylar tissue, including immature anthers

The SC10-RNase promoter displays changes in DNA methylation patterns through pistil development in self-incompatible Nicotiana alata

In Solanaceae, self-incompatibility is a genetic mechanism that prevents endogamy in plant populations. Expression of the S-determinants, S-RNase, and SLF, is tightly regulated during pistil and pollen development. However, the molecular mechanism of gene expression regulation in S-RNase-based self-incompatibility systems must be better understood. Here, we identified a 1.3 Kbp sequence upstream to the coding region of the functional SC10-RNase allele from the self-incompatible Nicotiana alata, which directs SC10-RNase expression in mature pistils. This SC10-RNase promoter includes a 300 bp region with minimal elements that sustain the SC10-RNase expression. Likewise, a fragment of a transposable element from the Gypsy family of retrotransposons is also present at the -320 bp position. Nevertheless, its presence does not affect the expression of the SC10-RNase in mature pistils. Additionally, we determined that the SC10-RNase promoter undergoes different DNA methylation states during pistil development, being the mCHH methylation context the most frequent close to the transcription start site at pistil maturity. We hypothesized that the Gypsy element at the SC10-RNase promoter might contribute to the DNA methylation remodeling on the three sequence contexts analyzed here. We propose that mCHH methylation enrichment and other regulatory elements in the S-RNase coding region regulate the specific and abundant SC10-RNase expression in mature pistils in N. alata.

Identification of S-RNase and peroxidase in petunia nectar

Previous SDS PAGE gel analysis of the floral nectars from petunia and tobacco plants revealed significant differences in the protein patterns. Petunia floral nectar was shown to contain a number of RNase activities by in gel RNase activity assay. To identify these proteins in more detail, the bands with RNase activity were excised from gel and subjected to trypsin digestion followed by LC-MS/MS analysis. This analysis revealed that S-RNases accumulate in nectar from Petunia hybrida, where they should carry out a biological function different from self-pollen rejection. In addition, other proteins were identified by the LC-MS/MS analysis. These proteins include a peroxidase, an endochitinase, and a putative fructokinase. Each of these proteins contained a secretory signal sequence that marked them as potential nectar proteins. We developed RT-PCR assays for each of these five proteins and demonstrated that each of these proteins was expressed in the petunia floral nectary. A discussion of the role of these proteins in antimicrobial activity in nectar is presented.

Role of petal-specific orcinol O-methyltransferases in the evolution of rose scent

Orcinol O-methyltransferase (OOMT) 1 and 2 catalyze the last two steps of the biosynthetic pathway leading to the phenolic methyl ether 3,5-dimethoxytoluene (DMT), the major scent compound of many rose (Rosa x hybrida) varieties. Modern roses are descended from both European and Chinese species, the latter being producers of phenolic methyl ethers but not the former. Here we investigated why phenolic methyl ether production occurs in some but not all rose varieties. In DMT-producing varieties, OOMTs were shown to be localized specifically in the petal, predominantly in the adaxial epidermal cells. In these cells, OOMTs become increasingly associated with membranes during petal development, suggesting that the scent biosynthesis pathway catalyzed by these enzymes may be directly linked to the cells' secretory machinery. OOMT gene sequences were detected in two non-DMT-producing rose species of European origin, but no mRNA transcripts were detected, and these varieties lacked both OOMT protein and enzyme activity. These data indicate that up-regulation of OOMT gene expression may have been a critical step in the evolution of scent production in roses.

Identification of a S-ribonuclease-binding protein in Petunia hybrida

To investigate protein-protein interactions in gametophytic self-incompatibility, we used a yeast two-hybrid assay to identify proteins that could interact with the S-ribonuclease protein. These assays identified a pollen-expressed protein, which we have named PhSBP1, that appears to bind with a high degree of specificity to the Petunia hybrida S-ribonuclease. Although PhSBP1 activates reporter gene expression only when expressed in tandem with a S-RNAse bait protein, binding is not allele-specific. Sequence analysis demonstrated that PhSBP1 contained a C-terminal cysteine-rich region that includes a RING-HC domain. Because many RING-finger domain proteins appear to function as E3 ubiquitin ligases, our results suggest that ubiquitination and protein degradation may play a role in regulating self-incompatibility interactions. Together, these results suggest that PhSBPI may be a candidate for the recently proposed general inhibitor (RI) of self-incompatibility ribonucleases.

Expressing foreign genes in the pistil: a comparison of S-RNase constructs in different Nicotiana backgrounds

Transgenic plant experiments have great potential for extending our understanding of the role of specific genes in controlling pollination. Often, the intent of such experiments is to over-express a gene and test for effects on pollination. We have examined the efficiency of six different S-RNase constructs in Nicotiana species and hybrids. Each construct contained the coding region, intron, and downstream sequences from the Nicotiana alata S(A2)-RNase gene. Among the six expression constructs, two utilized the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter with duplicated enhancer, and four utilized promoters from genes expressed primarily in pistils. The latter included promoters from the tomato Chi2;1 and 9612 genes, a promoter from the N. alata S(A2)-RNase gene, and a promoter from the Brassica SLG-13 gene. Some or all of the constructs were tested in N. tabacum, N. plumbaginifolia, N. plumbaginifolia x SI N. alata S(C10)S(c10) hybrids, N. langsdorffii, and N. langsdorffii x SC N. alata hybrids. Stylar specific RNase activities and S(A2)-RNase transcript levels were determined in transformed plants. Constructs including the tomato Chi2;1 gene promoter or the Brassica SLG-13 promoter provided the highest levels of S(A2)-RNase expression. Transgene expression patterns were tightly regulated, the highest level of expression was observed in post-anthesis styles. Expression levels of the S(A2)-RNase transgenes was dependent on the genetic background of the host. Higher levels of S(A2)-RNase expression were observed in N. plumbaginifolia x SC N. alata hybrids than in N. plumbaginifolia.

A promoter directing high level expression in pistils of transgenic plants

The promoter of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) SK2 gene, encoding a pistil-specific basic endochitinase, was cloned. Various fragments of the SK2-promoter, from 1 kb down to 0.23 kb in length, were fused to the GUS reporter gene. Chimaeric SK2 promoter-GUS fusion constructs were transformed into potato by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. The SK2-GUS transgenic potato plants exhibited a highly specific GUS activity in the pistil. Expression in the pistil was shown to be developmentally regulated. In addition to the GUS activity in pistils, transgenic plants also showed a much weaker ectopic expression in anthers. In other tissues no systematic expression was detectable. All SK2 promoter fragments analysed conferred pistil-specific expression without significant qualitative or quantitative differences, demonstrating that the regulatory elements mediating this expression pattern are located within a 230 bp SK2 promoter fragment. The SK2 promoter may be used to engineer high levels of expression in pistils of transgenic plants.

The promoter of aBrassica napus polygalacturonase gene directs pollen expression ofβ-glucuronidase in transgenicBrassica plants

A 647-bp 5'-flanking fragment obtained from genomic clone Sta 44G(2) belonging to a family of polygalacturonase genes expressed inBrassica napus pollen was fused to theβ-glucuronidase (GUS) marker gene. This fusion construct was introduced intoB. napus plants viaAgrobacterium tumefaciens transformation. Analysis of the transgenicB. napus plants revealed that this promoter fragment is sufficient to direct GUS expression specifically in the anther and that GUS activity increases in pollen during maturation.

How flowering plants discriminate between self and non-self pollen to prevent inbreeding

Flowering plants have evolved various genetic mechanisms to circumvent the tendency for self-fertilization created by the close proximity of male and female reproductive organs in a bisexual flower. One such mechanism is gametophytic self-incompatibility, which allows the female reproductive organ, the pistil, to distinguish between self pollen and non-self pollen; self pollen is rejected, whereas non-self pollen is accepted for fertilization. The Solanaceae family has been used as a model to study the molecular and biochemical basis of self/non-self-recognition and self-rejection. Discrimination of self and non-self pollen by the pistil is controlled by a single polymorphic locus, the S locus. The protein products of S alleles in the pistil, S proteins, were initially identified based on their cosegregation with S alleles. S proteins have recently been shown to indeed control the ability of the pistil to recognize and reject self pollen. S proteins are also RNases, and the RNase activity has been shown to be essential for rejection of self pollen, suggesting that the biochemical mechanism of self-rejection involves the cytotoxic action of the RNase activity. S proteins contain various numbers of N-linked glycans, but the carbohydrate moiety has been shown not to be required for the function of S proteins, suggesting that the S allele specificity determinant of S proteins lies in the amino acid sequence. The male component in self-incompatibility interactions, the pollen S gene, has not yet been identified. The possible nature of the pollen S gene product and the possible mechanism by which allele-specific rejection of pollen is accomplished are discussed.

The S-locus of Nicotiana alata: genomic organization and sequence analysis of two S-RNase alleles

Genomic clones encoding the S2- and S6-RNases of Nicotiana alata Link and Otto, which are the allelic stylar products of the self-incompatibility (S) locus, were isolated and sequenced. Analysis of genomic DNA by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting indicates the presence of only a single S-RNase gene in the N. alata genome. The sequences of the open-reading frames in the genomic and corresponding cDNA clones were identical. The organization of the genes was similar to that of other S-RNase genes from solanaceous plants. No sequence similarity was found between the DNA flanking the S2- and S6-RNase genes, despite extensive similarities between the coding regions. The DNA flanking the S6-RNase gene contained sequences that were moderately abundant in the genome. These repeat sequences are also present in other members of the Nicotianae.

An S-RNase promoter from Nicotiana alata functions in transgenic N. alata plants but not Nicotiana tabacum

Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana alata plants were transformed with genomic clones of two S-RNase alleles from N. alata. Neither the S2 clone, with 1.6 kb of 5' sequence, nor the S6 clone, with 2.8 kb of 5' sequence, were expressed at detectable levels in transgenic N. tabacum plants. In N. alata, expression of the S2 clone was not detected, however the S6 clone was expressed (at low levels) in three out of four transgenic plants. An S6-promoter-GUS fusion gene was also expressed in transgenic N. alata but not N. tabacum. Although endogenous S-RNase genes are expressed exclusively in floral pistils, the GUS fusion was expressed in both styles and leaves.

Cloning a putative self-incompatibility gene from the pollen of the grass Phalaris coerulescens

In Phalaris coerulescens, gametophytic self-incompatibility is controlled by two unlinked genes: S and Z. A probable S gene has now been isolated and sequenced. This represents a novel self-incompatibility gene isolated from pollen in the multilocus system of a monocotyledonous plant. The gene is approximately 3 kb long, split by five introns, and exclusively expressed in the mature pollen. The deduced amino acid sequences from the S1, S2, and part of the S4 alleles showed that the protein has a variable N terminus and a conserved C terminus. The sequence of a complete mutant at the S locus indicated that mutations in the conserved C terminus, a thioredoxin-like region, led to loss of function. We propose that the gene has two distinct sections, a variable N terminus determining allele specificity and a conserved C terminus with the catalytic function. The gene structure and its deduced protein sequences strongly suggest that this monocotyledon has developed a self-incompatibility system entirely different from those operating in the dicotyledons. The possible interactions between S and Z genes in both pollen and stigma are discussed.