Molecular and Physiological Analysis of a Thylakoid K+ Channel Protein

Mg2+ homeostasis and transport in cyanobacteria - at the crossroads of bacterial and chloroplast Mg2+ import

Magnesium cation (Mg2+) is the most abundant divalent cation in living cells, where it is required for various intracellular functions. In chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, established photosynthetic model systems, Mg2+ is the central ion in chlorophylls, and Mg2+ flux across the thylakoid membrane is required for counterbalancing the light-induced generation of a ΔpH across the thylakoid membrane. Yet, not much is known about Mg2+ homoeostasis, transport and distribution within cyanobacteria. However, Mg2+ transport across membranes has been studied in non-photosynthetic bacteria, and first observations and findings are reported for chloroplasts. Cyanobacterial cytoplasmic membranes appear to contain the well-characterized Mg2+ channels CorA and/or MgtE, which both facilitate transmembrane Mg2+ flux down the electrochemical gradient. Both Mg2+ channels are typical for non-photosynthetic bacteria. Furthermore, Mg2+ transporters of the MgtA/B family are also present in the cytoplasmic membrane to mediate active Mg2+ import into the bacterial cell. While the cytoplasmic membrane of cyanobacteria resembles a 'classical' bacterial membrane, essentially nothing is known about Mg2+ channels and/or transporters in thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria or chloroplasts. As discussed here, at least one Mg2+ channelling protein must be localized within thylakoid membranes. Thus, either one of the 'typical' bacterial Mg2+ channels has a dual localization in the cytoplasmic plus the thylakoid membrane, or another, yet unidentified channel is present in cyanobacterial thylakoid membranes.

Salinity effects on chloroplast PSII performance in glycophytes and halophytes

The effects of NaCl stress and K+ nutrition on photosynthetic parameters of isolated chloroplasts were investigated using PAM fluorescence. Intact mesophyll cells were able to maintain optimal photosynthetic performance when exposed to salinity for more than 24h whereas isolated chloroplasts showed declines in both the relative electron transport rate (rETR) and the maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) within the first hour of treatment. The rETR was much more sensitive to salt stress compared with Fv/Fm, with 40% inhibition of rETR observed at apoplastic NaCl concentration as low as 20mM. In isolated chloroplasts, absolute K+ concentrations were more essential for the maintenance of the optimal photochemical performance (Fv/Fm values) rather than sodium concentrations per se. Chloroplasts from halophyte species of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and pigface (Carpobrotus rosii (Haw.) Schwantes) showed less than 18% decline in Fv/Fm under salinity, whereas the Fv/Fm decline in chloroplasts from glycophyte pea (Pisum sativum L.) and bean (Vicia faba L.) species was much stronger (31 and 47% respectively). Vanadate (a P-type ATPase inhibitor) significantly reduced Fv/Fm in both control and salinity treated chloroplasts (by 7 and 25% respectively), whereas no significant effects of gadolinium (blocker of non-selective cation channels) were observed in salt-treated chloroplasts. Tetraethyl ammonium (TEA) (K+ channel inhibitor) and amiloride (inhibitor of the Na+/H+ antiporter) increased the Fv/Fm of salinity treated chloroplasts by 16 and 17% respectively. These results suggest that chloroplasts' ability to regulate ion transport across the envelope and thylakoid membranes play a critical role in leaf photosynthetic performance under salinity.

Envelope K+/H+ Antiporters AtKEA1 and AtKEA2 Function in Plastid Development

It is well established that thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts convert light energy into chemical energy, yet the development of chloroplast and thylakoid membranes is poorly understood. Loss of function of the two envelope K(+)/H(+) antiporters AtKEA1 and AtKEA2 was shown previously to have negative effects on the efficiency of photosynthesis and plant growth; however, the molecular basis remained unclear. Here, we tested whether the previously described phenotypes of double mutant kea1kea2 plants are due in part to defects during early chloroplast development in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). We show that impaired growth and pigmentation is particularly evident in young expanding leaves of kea1kea2 mutants. In proliferating leaf zones, chloroplasts contain much lower amounts of photosynthetic complexes and chlorophyll. Strikingly, AtKEA1 and AtKEA2 proteins accumulate to high amounts in small and dividing plastids, where they are specifically localized to the two caps of the organelle separated by the fission plane. The unusually long amino-terminal domain of 550 residues that precedes the antiport domain appears to tether the full-length AtKEA2 protein to the two caps. Finally, we show that the double mutant contains 30% fewer chloroplasts per cell. Together, these results show that AtKEA1 and AtKEA2 transporters in specific microdomains of the inner envelope link local osmotic, ionic, and pH homeostasis to plastid division and thylakoid membrane formation.

Ability of leaf mesophyll to retain potassium correlates with salinity tolerance in wheat and barley

This work investigated the importance of the ability of leaf mesophyll cells to control K(+) flux across the plasma membrane as a trait conferring tissue tolerance mechanism in plants grown under saline conditions. Four wheat (Triticum aestivum and Triticum turgidum) and four barley (Hordeum vulgare) genotypes contrasting in their salinity tolerance were grown under glasshouse conditions. Seven to 10-day-old leaves were excised, and net K(+) and H(+) fluxes were measured from either epidermal or mesophyll cells upon acute 100 mM treatment (mimicking plant failure to restrict Na(+) delivery to the shoot) using non-invasive microelectrode ion flux estimation (the MIFE) system. To enable net ion flux measurements from leaf epidermal cells, removal of epicuticular waxes was trialed with organic solvents. A series of methodological experiments was conducted to test the efficiency of different methods of wax removal, and the impact of experimental procedures on cell viability, in order to optimize the method. A strong positive correlation was found between plants' ability to retain K(+) in salt-treated leaves and their salinity tolerance, in both wheat and especially barley. The observed effects were related to the ionic but not osmotic component of salt stress. Pharmacological experiments have suggested that voltage-gated K(+) -permeable channels mediate K(+) retention in leaf mesophyll upon elevated NaCl levels in the apoplast. It is concluded that MIFE measurements of NaCl-induced K(+) fluxes from leaf mesophyll may be used as an efficient screening tool for breeding in cereals for salinity tissue tolerance.

A novel AtKEA gene family, homolog of bacterial K+/H+ antiporters, plays potential roles in K+ homeostasis and osmotic adjustment in Arabidopsis

AtKEAs, homologs of bacterial KefB/KefC, are predicted to encode K⁺/H⁺ antiporters in Arabidopsis. The AtKEA family contains six genes forming two subgroups in the cladogram: AtKEA1-3 and AtKEA4-6. AtKEA1 and AtKEA2 have a long N-terminal domain; the full-length AtKEA1 was inactive in yeast. The transport activity was analyzed by expressing the AtKEA genes in yeast mutants lacking multiple ion carriers. AtKEAs conferred resistance to high K⁺ and hygromycin B but not to salt and Li⁺ stress. AtKEAs expressed in both the shoot and root of Arabidopsis. The expression of AtKEA1, -3 and -4 was enhanced under low K⁺ stress, whereas AtKEA2 and AtKEA5 were induced by sorbitol and ABA treatments. However, osmotic induction of AtKEA2 and AtKEA5 was not observed in aba2-3 mutants, suggesting an ABA regulated mechanism for their osmotic response. AtKEAs’ expression may not be regulated by the SOS pathway since their expression was not affected in sos mutants. The GFP tagging analysis showed that AtKEAs distributed diversely in yeast. The Golgi localization of AtKEA3 was demonstrated by both the stably transformed seedlings and the transient expression in protoplasts. Overall, AtKEAs expressed and localized diversely, and may play roles in K⁺ homeostasis and osmotic adjustment in Arabidopsis.

Function and evolution of channels and transporters in photosynthetic membranes

Chloroplasts from land plants and algae originated from an endosymbiotic event, most likely involving an ancestral photoautotrophic prokaryote related to cyanobacteria. Both chloroplasts and cyanobacteria have thylakoid membranes, harboring pigment-protein complexes that perform the light-dependent reactions of oxygenic photosynthesis. The composition, function and regulation of these complexes have thus far been the major topics in thylakoid membrane research. For many decades, we have also accumulated biochemical and electrophysiological evidence for the existence of solute transthylakoid transport activities that affect photosynthesis. However, research dedicated to molecular identification of the responsible proteins has only recently emerged with the explosion of genomic information. Here we review the current knowledge about channels and transporters from the thylakoid membrane of Arabidopsis thaliana and of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. No homologues of these proteins have been characterized in algae, although similar sequences could be recognized in many of the available sequenced genomes. Based on phylogenetic analyses, we hypothesize a host origin for most of the so far identified Arabidopsis thylakoid channels and transporters. Additionally, the shift from a non-thylakoid to a thylakoid location appears to have occurred at different times for different transport proteins. We propose that closer control of and provision for the thylakoid by products of the host genome has been an ongoing process, rather than a one-step event. Some of the proteins recruited to serve in the thylakoid may have been the result of the increased specialization of its pigment-protein composition and organization in green plants.

Regulation of photosynthesis by ion channels in cyanobacteria and higher plants

Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy, and supplies ATP and NADPH for CO2 fixation into carbohydrates and for the synthesis of several compounds which are essential for autotrophic growth. Oxygenic photosynthesis takes place in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and photosynthetic prokaryote cyanobacteria. An ancestral photoautotrophic prokaryote related to cyanobacteria has been proposed to give rise to chloroplasts of plants and algae through an endosymbiotic event. Indeed, photosynthetic complexes involved in the electron transport coupled to H(+) translocation and ATP synthesis are similar in higher plants and cyanobacteria. Furthermore, some of the protein and solute/ion conducting machineries also share common structure and function. Electrophysiological and biochemical evidence support the existence of ion channels in the thylakoid membrane in both types of organisms. By allowing specific ion fluxes across thylakoid membranes, ion channels have been hypothesized to either directly or indirectly regulate photosynthesis, by modulating the proton motive force. Recent molecular identification of some of the thylakoid-located channels allowed to obtain genetic proof in favor of such hypothesis. Furthermore, some ion channels of the envelope membrane in chloroplasts have also been shown to impact on this light-driven process. Here we give an overview of thylakoid/chloroplast located ion channels of higher plants and of cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. We focus on channels shown to be implicated in the regulation of photosynthesis and discuss the possible mechanisms of action.

Thylakoid potassium channel is required for efficient photosynthesis in cyanobacteria

A potassium channel (SynK) of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, a photoheterotrophic model organism for the study of photosynthesis, has been recently identified and demonstrated to function as a potassium selective channel when expressed in a heterologous system and to be located predominantly to the thylakoid membrane in cyanobacteria. To study its physiological role, a SynK-less knockout mutant was generated and characterized. Fluorimetric experiments indicated that SynK-less cyanobacteria cannot build up a proton gradient as efficiently as WT organisms, suggesting that SynK might be involved in the regulation of the electric component of the proton motive force. Accordingly, measurements of flash-induced cytochrome b(6)f turnover and respiration pointed to a reduced generation of ΔpH and to an altered linear electron transport in mutant cells. The lack of the channel did not cause an altered membrane organization, but decreased growth and modified the photosystem II/photosystem I ratio at high light intensities because of enhanced photosensitivity. These data shed light on the function of a prokaryotic potassium channel and reports evidence, by means of a genetic approach, on the requirement of a thylakoid ion channel for optimal photosynthesis.

Arabidopsis KEA2, a homolog of bacterial KefC, encodes a K(+)/H(+) antiporter with a chloroplast transit peptide

KEA genes encode putative K(+) efflux antiporters that are predominantly found in algae and plants but are rare in metazoa; however, nothing is known about their functions in eukaryotic cells. Plant KEA proteins show homology to bacterial K(+) efflux (Kef) transporters, though two members in the Arabidopsis thaliana family, AtKEA1 and AtKEA2, have acquired an extra hydrophilic domain of over 500 residues at the amino terminus. We show that AtKEA2 is highly expressed in leaves, stems and flowers, but not in roots, and that an N-terminal peptide of the protein is targeted to chloroplasts in Arabidopsis cotyledons. The full-length AtKEA2 protein was inactive when expressed in yeast; however, a truncated AtKEA2 protein (AtsKEA2) lacking the N-terminal domain complemented disruption of the Na(+)(K(+))/H(+) antiporter Nhx1p to confer hygromycin resistance and tolerance to Na(+) or K(+) stress. To test transport activity, purified truncated AtKEA2 was reconstituted in proteoliposomes containing the fluorescent probe pyranine. Monovalent cations reduced an imposed pH gradient (acid inside) indicating AtsKEA2 mediated cation/H(+) exchange with preference for K(+)=Cs(+)>Li(+)>Na(+). When a conserved Asp(721) in transmembrane helix 6 that aligns to the cation binding Asp(164) of Escherichia coli NhaA was replaced with Ala, AtsKEA2 was completely inactivated. Mutation of a Glu(835) between transmembrane helix 8 and 9 in AtsKEA2 also resulted in loss of activity suggesting this region has a regulatory role. Thus, AtKEA2 represents the founding member of a novel group of eukaryote K(+)/H(+) antiporters that modulate monovalent cation and pH homeostasis in plant chloroplasts or plastids.

Solute transporters in plant thylakoid membranes: Key players during photosynthesis and light stress

Plants utilize sunlight to drive photosynthetic energy conversion in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane. Here are located four major photosynthetic complexes, about which we have great knowledge in terms of structure and function. However, much less we know about auxiliary proteins, such as transporters, ensuring an optimum function and turnover of these complexes. The most prominent thylakoid transporter is the proton-translocating ATP-synthase. Recently, four additional transporters have been identified in the thylakoid membrane of Arabidopsis thaliana, namely one copper-transporting P-ATPase, one chloride channel, one phosphate transporter, and one ATP/ADP carrier. Here, we review the current knowledge on the function and physiological role of these transporters during photosynthesis and light stress in plants. Subsequently, we make a survey on the outlook of thylakoid activities awaiting identification of responsible proteins. Such knowledge is necessary to understand the thylakoid network of transporters, and to design strategies for bioengineering crop plants in the future.

A novel potassium channel in photosynthetic cyanobacteria

Elucidation of the structure-function relationship of a small number of prokaryotic ion channels characterized so far greatly contributed to our knowledge on basic mechanisms of ion conduction. We identified a new potassium channel (SynK) in the genome of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803, a photosynthetic model organism. SynK, when expressed in a K(+)-uptake-system deficient E. coli strain, was able to recover growth of these organisms. The protein functions as a potassium selective ion channel when expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The location of SynK in cyanobacteria in both thylakoid and plasmamembranes was revealed by immunogold electron microscopy and Western blotting of isolated membrane fractions. SynK seems to be conserved during evolution, giving rise to a TPK (two-pore K(+) channel) family member which is shown here to be located in the thylakoid membrane of Arabidopsis. Our work characterizes a novel cyanobacterial potassium channel and indicates the molecular nature of the first higher plant thylakoid cation channel, opening the way to functional studies.

Liposomal nanocapsules in food science and agriculture

Liposomes, spherical bilayer vesicles from dispersion of polar lipids in aqueous solvents, have been widely studied for their ability to act as drug delivery vehicles by shielding reactive or sensitive compounds prior to release. Liposome entrapment has been shown to stabilize encapsulated, bioactive materials against a range of environmental and chemical changes, including enzymatic and chemical modification, as well as buffering against extreme pH, temperature, and ionic strength changes. Liposomes have been especially useful to researchers in studies of various physiological processes as models of biological membranes in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Industrial applications include encapsulation of pharmaceuticals and therapeutics, cosmetics, anti-cancer and gene therapy drugs. In the food industry, liposomes have been used to deliver food flavors and nutrients and more recently have been investigated for their ability to incorporate food antimicrobials that could aid in the protection of food products against growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. In this review we briefly introduce key physicochemical properties of liposomes and review competing methods for liposome production. A survey of non-agricultural and food applications of liposomes are given. Finally, a detailed up-to-date summary of the emerging usage of liposomes in the food industry as delivery vehicles of nutrients, nutraceuticals, food additives, and food antimicrobials is provided.