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Zakaria MM, Kruse LH, Engelhardt A, Ober D. Seeing double: two different homospermidine oxidases are involved in pyrrolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis in different organs of comfrey (Symphytum officinale). THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38815125 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are toxic specialized metabolites produced in several plant species and frequently contaminate herbal teas or livestock feed. In comfrey (Symphytum officinale, Boraginaceae), they are produced in two different organs of the plant, the root and young leaves. In this study, we demonstrate that homospermidine oxidase (HSO), a copper-containing amine oxidase (CuAO) responsible for catalyzing the formation of the distinctive pyrrolizidine ring in PAs, is encoded by two individual genes. Specifically, SoCuAO1 is expressed in young leaves, while SoCuAO5 is expressed in roots. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of socuao5 resulted in hairy roots (HRs) unable to produce PAs, supporting its function as HSO in roots. Plants regenerated from socuao5 knockout HRs remained completely PA-free until the plants began to develop inflorescences, indicating the presence of another HSO that is expressed only during flower development. Stable expression of SoCuAO1 in socuao5 knockout HRs rescued the ability to produce PAs. In vitro assays of both enzymes transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana confirmed their HSO activity and revealed the ability of HSO to control the stereospecific cyclization of the pyrrolizidine backbone. The observation that the first specific step of PA biosynthesis catalyzed by homospermidine synthase requires only one gene copy, while two independent paralogs are recruited for the subsequent homospermidine oxidation in different tissues of the plant, suggests a complex regulation of the pathway. This adds a new level of complexity to PA biosynthesis, a system already characterized by species-specific, tight spatio-temporal regulation, and independent evolutionary origins in multiple plant lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud M Zakaria
- Botanical Institute and Botanic Gardens, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, 44519, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Lars H Kruse
- Botanical Institute and Botanic Gardens, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Annika Engelhardt
- Botanical Institute and Botanic Gardens, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Dietrich Ober
- Botanical Institute and Botanic Gardens, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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2
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Takano K, Ikeda H, Takanashi K. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are synthesized and accumulated in flower of Myosotis scorpioides. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2024; 137:455-462. [PMID: 38368590 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-024-01525-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are specialized metabolites that are produced by various plant families that act as defense compounds against herbivores. On the other hand, certain lepidopteran insects uptake and utilize these PAs as defense compounds against their predators and as precursors of their sex pheromones. Adult males of Parantica sita, a danaine butterfly, convert PAs into their sex pheromones. In early summer, P. sita swarms over the flowers of Myosotis scorpioides, which belongs to the family Boraginaceae. M. scorpioides produces PAs, but the organs in which PAs are produced and whether P. sita utilizes PAs in M. scorpioides are largely unknown. In the present study, we clarified that M. scorpioides accumulates retronecine-core PAs in N-oxide form in all organs, including flowers. We also identified two M. scorpioides genes encoding homospermidine synthase (HSS), a key enzyme in the PA biosynthetic pathway, and clarified that these genes are expressed in all organs where PAs accumulate. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that these two HSS genes were originated from gene duplication of deoxyhypusine synthase gene like other HSS genes in PA-producing plants. These results suggest that PAs are synthesized and accumulated in the flower of M. scorpioides and provide a possibility for a PA-mediated interaction between P. sita and M. scorpioides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyohei Takano
- Department of Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Asahi 3-1-1, Matsumoto, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan
| | - Hajime Ikeda
- Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University, 2-20-1 Chuo, Kurashiki, Okayama, 710-0046, Japan
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba Meguro-Ku, Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan
| | - Kojiro Takanashi
- Department of Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Asahi 3-1-1, Matsumoto, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University, Asahi 3-1-1, Matsumoto, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan.
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Tábuas B, Cruz Barros S, Diogo C, Cavaleiro C, Sanches Silva A. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods, Herbal Drugs, and Food Supplements: Chemistry, Metabolism, Toxicological Significance, Analytical Methods, Occurrence, and Challenges for Future. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:79. [PMID: 38393157 PMCID: PMC10892171 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Consumers are increasingly seeking natural alternatives to chemical compounds, including the use of dried aromatic plants as seasonings instead of salt. However, the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in food supplements and dried plants has become a concern because of their link to liver diseases and their classification as carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Despite European Union (EU) Regulation (EU) 2023/915, non-compliance issues persist, as indicated by alerts on the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) portal. Analyzing PAs poses a challenge because of their diverse chemical structures and low concentrations in these products, necessitating highly sensitive analytical methods. Despite these challenges, ongoing advancements in analytical techniques coupled with effective sampling and extraction strategies offer the potential to enhance safety measures. These developments aim to minimize consumer exposure to PAs and safeguard their health while addressing the growing demand for natural alternatives in the marketplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Tábuas
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal (C.C.)
| | - Sílvia Cruz Barros
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal
| | - Catarina Diogo
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal (C.C.)
| | - Carlos Cavaleiro
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal (C.C.)
- Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products Research Centre (CIEPQPF), University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Sanches Silva
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal (C.C.)
- Center for Study in Animal Science (CECA), Institute of Sciences, Technologies and Agro-Environment of the University of Porto (ICETA), University of Porto, 4501-401 Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
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4
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Chizzola R, Eller A. Seasonal Variability in Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Jacobaea alpina from the Trentino-Alto Adige Region (Northern Italy). Chem Biodivers 2022; 19:e202200603. [PMID: 36202629 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202200603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, increased attention has been given to plants containing toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). Jacobaea alpina (syn. Senecio cordatus) is a tall forb growing on mountain pastures and meadows containing such alkaloids and therefore, the plant is considered as a noxious weed in these environments. The repartition of toxic macrocyclic PAs in the plant and their evolution during the vegetation period has been studied in two populations. Eight PAs were found where senciphylline and senecionine accounted in most samples for more than 85 % of total alkaloids. Leaves in April and stems in May started with high PA concentrations (19-22 mg/g dry matter), then alkaloid levels declined. This decrease was more rapid in stems than in leaves. Depending on the population, fully developed inflorescences in June and July PA contents were higher or lower than in the respective leaves. Later, also in the inflorescences PA concentration decreased. Combined with growth data total alkaloid content in the whole plant as mg/plant was highest in midsummer and declined afterwards. Finally, new emerging leaves in September had high PA levels, which declined markedly towards the end of the season in November. In sum, over a large period PA concentration appeared to be high enough to present a health risk for grazing animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remigius Chizzola
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andy Eller
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
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Prakashrao AS, Beuerle T, Simões ARG, Hopf C, Çiçek SS, Stegemann T, Ober D, Kaltenegger E. The long road of functional recruitment-The evolution of a gene duplicate to pyrrolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis in the morning glories (Convolvulaceae). PLANT DIRECT 2022; 6:e420. [PMID: 35865076 PMCID: PMC9295680 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In plants, homospermidine synthase (HSS) is a pathway-specific enzyme initiating the biosynthesis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), which function as a chemical defense against herbivores. In PA-producing Convolvulaceae ("morning glories"), HSS originated from deoxyhypusine synthase at least >50 to 75 million years ago via a gene duplication event and subsequent functional diversification. To study the recruitment of this ancient gene duplicate to PA biosynthesis, the presence of putative hss gene copies in 11 Convolvulaceae species was analyzed. Additionally, various plant parts from seven of these species were screened for the presence of PAs. Although all of these species possess a putative hss copy, PAs could only be detected in roots of Ipomoea neei (Spreng.) O'Donell and Distimake quinquefolius (L.) A.R.Simões & Staples in this study. A precursor of PAs was detected in roots of Ipomoea alba L. Thus, despite sharing high sequence identities, the presence of an hss gene copy does not correlate with PA accumulation in particular species of Convolvulaceae. In vitro activity assays of the encoded enzymes revealed a broad spectrum of enzyme activity, further emphasizing a functional diversity of the hss gene copies. A recently identified HSS specific amino acid motif seems to be important for the loss of the ancestral protein function-the activation of the eukaryotic initiation factor 5A (eIF5A). Thus, the motif might be indicative for a change of function but allows not to predict the new function. This emphasizes the challenges in annotating functions for duplicates, even for duplicates from closely related species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arunraj Saranya Prakashrao
- Department Biochemical Ecology and Molecular Evolution, Botanical InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
- Present address:
Heart Research Center GöttingenUniversity Medical Center GöttingenGöttingenGermany.
| | - Till Beuerle
- Institute of Pharmaceutical BiologyTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Ana Rita G. Simões
- Royal Botanic Gardens, KewRichmondUK
- Systematic and Evolutionary Botany LabGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Christina Hopf
- Department of Structural Biology, Zoological InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
| | - Serhat Sezai Çiçek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
| | - Thomas Stegemann
- Department Biochemical Ecology and Molecular Evolution, Botanical InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
| | - Dietrich Ober
- Department Biochemical Ecology and Molecular Evolution, Botanical InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
| | - Elisabeth Kaltenegger
- Department Biochemical Ecology and Molecular Evolution, Botanical InstituteChristian‐Albrechts‐UniversityKielGermany
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6
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Zakaria MM, Stegemann T, Sievert C, Kruse LH, Kaltenegger E, Girreser U, Çiçek SS, Nimtz M, Ober D. Insights into polyamine metabolism: homospermidine is double-oxidized in two discrete steps by a single copper-containing amine oxidase in pyrrolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:2364-2382. [PMID: 35212762 PMCID: PMC9134089 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Polyamines are important metabolites in plant development and abiotic and biotic stress responses. Copper-containing amine oxidases (CuAOs) are involved in the regulation of polyamine levels in the cell. CuAOs oxidize primary amines to their respective aldehydes and hydrogen peroxide. In plants, aldehydes are intermediates in various biosynthetic pathways of alkaloids. CuAOs are thought to oxidize polyamines at only one of the primary amino groups, a process frequently resulting in monocyclic structures. These oxidases have been postulated to be involved in pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) biosynthesis. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of homospermidine oxidase (HSO), a CuAO of Heliotropium indicum (Indian heliotrope), involved in PA biosynthesis. Virus-induced gene silencing of HSO in H. indicum leads to significantly reduced PA levels. By in vitro enzyme assays after transient in planta expression, we show that this enzyme prefers Hspd over other amines. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry analyses of the reaction products demonstrate that HSO oxidizes both primary amino groups of homospermidine (Hspd) to form a bicyclic structure, 1-formylpyrrolizidine. Using tracer feeding, we have further revealed that 1-formylpyrrolizidine is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of PAs. Our study therefore establishes that HSO, a canonical CuAO, catalyzes the second step of PA biosynthesis and provides evidence for an undescribed and unusual mechanism involving two discrete steps of oxidation that might also be involved in the biosynthesis of complex structures in other alkaloidal pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Ulrich Girreser
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Serhat S Çiçek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Manfred Nimtz
- Cellular Proteome Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
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7
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Mahmoudzadeh E, Nazemiyeh H, Hamedeyazdan S. Anti-inflammatory Properties of the Genus Symphytum L.: A Review. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH 2022; 21:e123949. [PMID: 36060906 PMCID: PMC9420230 DOI: 10.5812/ijpr.123949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
: The Symphytum genus has been mainly used in traditional medicine, containing its anti-inflammatory activity. Symphytum spp.’s active components, such as allantoin, polyphenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids, can act on several intentions in the signaling pathway, constrain pro-inflammatory enzymes, reducing the construction of inflammatory chemokine’s and cytokines, and decreasing oxidative stress, which afterward suppresses inflammation procedures. Preclinical and clinical trials have reported the prevailing anti-inflammatory effect of several Symphytum species. This review presents an overview of the anti-inflammatory activities of different products and bioactive constituents in this genus. The papers with the English language were gathered from 2000 to 2021. This review may provide a scientific base for establishing innovative and alternative techniques for isolating a single individual from this genus to attenuate inflammatory disorders. The Symphytum genus is waiting for researchers to develop safe and effective anti-inflammatory agents for additional investigation of other different mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaheh Mahmoudzadeh
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hossein Nazemiyeh
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sanaz Hamedeyazdan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Research Center for Integrative Medicine in Aging, Aging Research Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Corresponding Author: Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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Ali A, Li Y, Arockiam Jeyasundar PGS, Azeem M, Su J, Wahid F, Mahar A, Shah MZ, Li R, Zhang Z. Streptomyces pactum and Bacillus consortium influenced the bioavailability of toxic metals, soil health, and growth attributes of Symphytum officinale in smelter/mining polluted soil. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 291:118237. [PMID: 34592330 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Soil microbes influence the uptake of toxic metals (TMs) by changing soil characteristics, bioavailability and translocation of TMs, and soil health indicators in polluted environment. The potential effect of Streptomyces pactum (Act12) and Bacillus consortium (B. subtilis and B. licheniformis; 1:1) on soil enzymes and bacterial abundance, bioavailability and translocation of Zn and Cd by Symphytum officinale, and physiological indicators in soil acquired from Fengxian (FX) mining site. Act12 and Bacillus consortium were applied at 0 (CK), 0.50 (T1), 1.50 (T2), and 2.50 (T3) g kg-1 in a split plot design and three times harvested (H). Results showed that soil pH significantly dropped, whereas, electrical conductivity increased at higher Act12 and Bacillus doses. The extractable Zn lowered and Cd increased at each harvest compared to their controls. Soil β-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, urease and sucrase improved, whereas, dehydrogenase reduced in harvest 2 and 3 (H2 and H3) as compared to harvest 1 (H1) after Act12 and Bacillus treatments. The main soil phyla individually contributed ∼5-55.6%. Soil bacterial communities' distribution was also altered by Act12 and Bacillus amendments. Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Bacteroidetes increased, whereas, the Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Gemmatimonadetes decreased during the one-year trial. The Zn and Cd concentration significantly decreased in shoots at each harvest, whereas, the roots concentration was far higher than the shoots, implicating the rhizoremediation by S. officinale. Accumulation factor (AF) and bioconcentration ratio (BCR) of Zn and Cd in shoots were lower and remained higher in case of roots than the standard level (≥1). BCR values of roots indicated that S. officinale can be used for rhizoremediation of TMs in smelter/mines-polluted soils. Thus, field trials in smelter/mines contaminated soils and the potential role of saponin and tannin exudation in metal translocation by plant will broaden our understanding about the mechanism of rhizoremediation of TMs by S. officinale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amjad Ali
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Yiman Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | | | - Muhammad Azeem
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Junfeng Su
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Fazli Wahid
- Department of Agriculture, University of Swabi, Swabi, 23340, Pakistan
| | - Amanullah Mahar
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, 76080, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zahir Shah
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710127, China
| | - Ronghua Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Zengqiang Zhang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
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Li Y, Ali A, Jeyasundar PGSA, Azeem M, Tabassum A, Guo D, Li R, Mian IA, Zhang Z. Bacillus subtilis and saponin shifted the availability of heavy metals, health indicators of smelter contaminated soil, and the physiological indicators of Symphytum officinale. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 285:131454. [PMID: 34271464 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis and saponin were tested for the uptake of heavy metals (HMs) by Symphytum officinale grown in a smelter-contaminated soil in completely randomized design. Soil pH and electrical conductivity increased by 0.11 unit (T3) and 754 mS cm-1 (T2), respectively. The bioavailable Zn decreased by 5.80% (T2); Cd and Pb increased by 6.21% (T2) and 13.46% (T3), respectively. Soil urease increased by 24% (T3) and alkaline phosphatase, β-glucosidase, and dehydrogenase decreased by 20% (T2), 27.70% (T2), and 21% (T1), respectively. Soil amendments altered the microbial diversity. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction reported no obvious changes, except saponin application, which led to possible release of HMs in soil. The fresh weight of Symphytum officinale increased by 21.3 and 5.50% in T2 and T3, respectively. Chlorophyll (a) and carotenoid decreased by the sole application of B. subtilis and saponin and vice-versa for chlorophyll (b). Mono-application of B. subtilis efficiently increased the peroxidase (POD: 27%) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO: 13.56%), whereas, co-application enhanced the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL: 6.50%) level in shoots. Zn concentration in the shoots and roots declined by 12.75 and 27.32% in T1, respectively. Cd increased (3.92%, T3) in shoots and decreased (39.25%, T1) in roots; Pb concentration remained below detection in shoots and increased by 40% (T3) in roots due to accumulation in dead cells and cell vacuoles. Overall, B. subtilis and saponin influenced the bioavailability of HMs, enzymatic activities, and bacterial abundance in the soil; plant growth indicators, antioxidants activities, and metal uptake in shoots and roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiman Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Amjad Ali
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xian University of Architecture and Technology, Xian, 715000, China.
| | | | - Muhammad Azeem
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Anum Tabassum
- Department of Microbiology, Women University, Mardan, 23200, Pakistan
| | - Di Guo
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Ronghua Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Ishaq Ahmad Mian
- Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, 2500, Pakistan
| | - Zengqiang Zhang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China.
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Metabolic Toxification of 1,2-Unsaturated Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids Causes Human Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction Syndrome: The Update. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910419. [PMID: 34638760 PMCID: PMC8508847 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Saturated and unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are present in more than 6000 plant species growing in countries all over the world. They have a typical heterocyclic structure in common, but differ in their potential toxicity, depending on the presence or absence of a double bond between C1 and C2. Fortunately, most plants contain saturated PAs without this double bond and are therefore not toxic for consumption by humans or animals. In a minority of plants, however, PAs with this double bond between C1 and C2 exhibit strong hepatotoxic, genotoxic, cytotoxic, neurotoxic, and tumorigenic potentials. If consumed in error and in large emouns, plants with 1,2-unsaturated PAs induce metabolic breaking-off of the double bonds of the unsaturated PAs, generating PA radicals that may trigger severe liver injury through a process involving microsomal P450 (CYP), with preference of its isoforms CYP 2A6, CYP 3A4, and CYP 3A5. This toxifying CYP-dependent conversion occurs primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocytes equivalent to the microsomal fraction. Toxified PAs injure the protein membranes of hepatocytes, and after passing their plasma membranes, more so the liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), leading to life-threatening hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS). This injury is easily diagnosed by blood pyrrolizidine protein adducts, which are perfect diagnostic biomarkers, supporting causality evaluation using the updated RUCAM (Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method). HSOS is clinically characterized by weight gain due to fluid accumulation (ascites, pleural effusion, and edema), and may lead to acute liver failure, liver transplantation, or death. In conclusion, plant-derived PAs with a double bond between C1 and C2 are potentially hepatotoxic after metabolic removal of the double bond, and may cause PA-HSOS with a potential lethal outcome, even if PA consumption is stopped.
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Zakaria MM, Schemmerling B, Ober D. CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Genome Editing in Comfrey ( Symphytum officinale) Hairy Roots Results in the Complete Eradication of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids. Molecules 2021; 26:1498. [PMID: 33801907 PMCID: PMC7998174 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26061498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) is a medicinal plant with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and proliferative properties. However, its pharmaceutical application is hampered by the co-occurrence of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in its tissues. Using a CRISPR/Cas9-based approach, we introduced detrimental mutations into the hss gene encoding homospermidine synthase (HSS), the first pathway-specific enzyme of PA biosynthesis. The resulting hairy root (HR) lines were analyzed for the type of gene-editing effect that they exhibited and for their homospermidine and PA content. Inactivation of only one of the two hss alleles resulted in HRs with significantly reduced levels of homospermidine and PAs, whereas no alkaloids were detectable in HRs with two inactivated hss alleles. PAs were detectable once again after the HSS-deficient HRs were fed homospermidine confirming that the inability of these roots to produce PAs was only attributable to the inactivated HSS and not to any unidentified off-target effect of the CRISPR/Cas9 approach. Further analyses showed that PA-free HRs possessed, at least in traces, detectable amounts of homospermidine, and that the PA patterns of manipulated HRs were different from those of control lines. These observations are discussed with regard to the potential use of such a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated approach for the economical exploitation of in vitro systems in a medicinal plant and for further studies of PA biosynthesis in non-model plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud M. Zakaria
- Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany; (M.M.Z.); (B.S.)
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, 44519 Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Brigitte Schemmerling
- Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany; (M.M.Z.); (B.S.)
| | - Dietrich Ober
- Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany; (M.M.Z.); (B.S.)
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12
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Schnabel A, Cotinguiba F, Athmer B, Vogt T. Piper nigrum CYP719A37 Catalyzes the Decisive Methylenedioxy Bridge Formation in Piperine Biosynthesis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:128. [PMID: 33435446 PMCID: PMC7826766 DOI: 10.3390/plants10010128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is among the world's most popular spices. Its pungent principle, piperine, has already been identified 200 years ago, yet the biosynthesis of piperine in black pepper remains largely enigmatic. In this report we analyzed the characteristic methylenedioxy bridge formation of the aromatic part of piperine by a combination of RNA-sequencing, functional expression in yeast, and LC-MS based analysis of substrate and product profiles. We identified a single cytochrome P450 transcript, specifically expressed in black pepper immature fruits. The corresponding gene was functionally expressed in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and characterized for substrate specificity with a series of putative aromatic precursors with an aromatic vanilloid structure. Methylenedioxy bridge formation was only detected when feruperic acid (5-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2,4-pentadienoic acid) was used as a substrate, and the corresponding product was identified as piperic acid. Two alternative precursors, ferulic acid and feruperine, were not accepted. Our data provide experimental evidence that formation of the piperine methylenedioxy bridge takes place in young black pepper fruits after a currently hypothetical chain elongation of ferulic acid and before the formation of the amide bond. The partially characterized enzyme was classified as CYP719A37 and is discussed in terms of specificity, storage, and phylogenetic origin of CYP719 catalyzed reactions in magnoliids and eudicots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianne Schnabel
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department Cell and Metabolic Biology, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (A.S.); (B.A.)
| | - Fernando Cotinguiba
- Instituto de Pesquisas de Produtos Naturais (IPPN), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Brazil;
| | - Benedikt Athmer
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department Cell and Metabolic Biology, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (A.S.); (B.A.)
| | - Thomas Vogt
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department Cell and Metabolic Biology, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (A.S.); (B.A.)
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Vaezi S, Haghighi HM, Farzad SA, Arabzadeh S, Kalalinia F. Bone Regeneration by Homeopathic Symphytum officinale. REGENERATIVE ENGINEERING AND TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40883-020-00181-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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14
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Mädge I, Gehling M, Schöne C, Winterhalter P, These A. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid profiling of four Boraginaceae species from Northern Germany and implications for the analytical scope proposed for monitoring of maximum levels. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1339-1358. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1757166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Inga Mädge
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Matthias Gehling
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cindy Schöne
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Winterhalter
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Anja These
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
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15
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Avila C, Breakspear I, Hawrelak J, Salmond S, Evans S. A systematic review and quality assessment of case reports of adverse events for borage (Borago officinalis), coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) and comfrey (Symphytum officinale). Fitoterapia 2020; 142:104519. [PMID: 32105669 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2020.104519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Symphytum officinale (comfrey), Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot) and Borago officinalis (borage) have long histories of therapeutic use, but their safety has been questioned due to the presence of unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). The evidence base underlying these concerns relies in part on case reports. This systematic review assesses these case reports for their reliability to inform this debate. METHOD Study selection was restricted to case reports describing possible pyrrolizidine alkaloid related harm and ingestion of comfrey, coltsfoot or borage. An extensive search of academic databases was conducted. Papers meeting the criteria were critically appraised. RESULTS The search resulted in 11 appropriate case reports, none of which involved borage. Nine reports were assessed for causality and indicated some degree of association between the material ingested and the adverse event. Lack of unequivocal identification of the species ingested compromised attribution and was a significant source of uncertainty. Three levels of identity confusions were found; misidentification or substitution at the level of the whole herb; omission of appropriate botanical identification and attribution of a specific PA to either comfrey or coltsfoot when it is a constituent found in other plants of established toxicity. CONCLUSION These cases are an unreliable body of evidence on which to draw conclusions about the safety of the oral consumption of Symphytum officinale and Tussilago farfara. Toxicological studies based on oral ingestion of phytochemically-complex preparations of these herbs may be the most accurate methodology for assessing clinical risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jason Hawrelak
- University of Tasmania, Australia; Australian Research Centre for Complementary and Integrative Medicine, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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16
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Salehi B, Sharopov F, Boyunegmez Tumer T, Ozleyen A, Rodríguez-Pérez C, Ezzat SM, Azzini E, Hosseinabadi T, Butnariu M, Sarac I, Bostan C, Acharya K, Sen S, Nur Kasapoglu K, Daşkaya-Dikmen C, Özçelik B, Baghalpour N, Sharifi-Rad J, Valere Tsouh Fokou P, Cho WC, Martins N. Symphytum Species: A Comprehensive Review on Chemical Composition, Food Applications and Phytopharmacology. Molecules 2019; 24:2272. [PMID: 31216776 PMCID: PMC6631335 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122272,] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Symphytum species belongs to the Boraginaceae family and have been used for centuries for bone breakages, sprains and rheumatism, liver problems, gastritis, ulcers, skin problems, joint pain and contusions, wounds, gout, hematomas and thrombophlebitis. Considering the innumerable potentialities of the Symphytum species and their widespread use in the world, it is extremely important to provide data compiling the available literature to identify the areas of intense research and the main gaps in order to design future studies. The present review aims at summarizing the main data on the therapeutic indications of the Symphytum species based on the current evidence, also emphasizing data on both the efficacy and adverse effects. The present review was carried out by consulting PubMed (Medline), Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Database, Science Direct and Google Scholar (as a search engine) databases to retrieve the most updated articles on this topic. All articles were carefully analyzed by the authors to assess their strengths and weaknesses, and to select the most useful ones for the purpose of review, prioritizing articles published from 1956 to 2018. The pharmacological effects of the Symphytum species are attributed to several chemical compounds, among them allantoin, phenolic compounds, glycopeptides, polysaccharides and some toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Not less important to highlight are the risks associated with its use. In fact, there is increasing consumption of over-the-counter drugs, which when associated with conventional drugs can cause serious and even fatal adverse events. Although clinical trials sustain the folk topical application of Symphytum species in musculoskeletal and blunt injuries, with minor adverse effects, its antimicrobial potency was still poorly investigated. Further studies are needed to assess the antimicrobial spectrum of Symphytum species and to characterize the active molecules both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahare Salehi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Bam University of Medical Sciences, Bam 44340847, Iran.
| | - Farukh Sharopov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Rudaki 139, Dushanbe 734003, Tajikistan.
| | - Tugba Boyunegmez Tumer
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Science, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17020, Turkey.
| | - Adem Ozleyen
- Graduate Program of Biomolecular Sciences, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17020, Turkey.
| | - Celia Rodríguez-Pérez
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Granada, Campus of Cartuja, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INYTA) 'José Mataix', Biomedical Research Centre, University of Granada, Avenida del Conocimiento s/n, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Shahira M Ezzat
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Ainy Street, Cairo 11562, Egypt.
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Science and Arts (MSA), 6th October City 12566, Egypt.
| | - Elena Azzini
- Centre for Research on Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Rome 546-00178 , Italy.
| | - Tahereh Hosseinabadi
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 11369, Iran.
| | - Monica Butnariu
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Ioan Sarac
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Cristian Bostan
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Krishnendu Acharya
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India.
| | - Surjit Sen
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India.
- Department of Botany, Fakir Chand College, Diamond Harbour, West Bengal 743331, India.
| | - Kadriye Nur Kasapoglu
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Ceren Daşkaya-Dikmen
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
- Istanbul Gedik University, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, 34876 Kartal, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Beraat Özçelik
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
- Bioactive Research & Innovation Food Manufac. Indust. Trade Ltd., Katar Street, Teknokent ARI-3, B110, Sarıyer 34467, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Navid Baghalpour
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 11369, Iran.
| | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Zabol Medicinal Plants Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol 61615-585, Iran.
| | - Patrick Valere Tsouh Fokou
- Antimicrobial and Biocontrol Agents Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde 1, Ngoa Ekelle, Annex Fac. Sci, Yaounde 812, Cameroon.
| | - William C Cho
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, 30 Gascoigne Road, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Natália Martins
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
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17
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Salehi B, Sharopov F, Boyunegmez Tumer T, Ozleyen A, Rodríguez-Pérez C, Ezzat SM, Azzini E, Hosseinabadi T, Butnariu M, Sarac I, Bostan C, Acharya K, Sen S, Nur Kasapoglu K, Daşkaya-Dikmen C, Özçelik B, Baghalpour N, Sharifi-Rad J, Valere Tsouh Fokou P, Cho WC, Martins N. Symphytum Species: A Comprehensive Review on Chemical Composition, Food Applications and Phytopharmacology. Molecules 2019; 24:E2272. [PMID: 31216776 PMCID: PMC6631335 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Symphytum species belongs to the Boraginaceae family and have been used for centuries for bone breakages, sprains and rheumatism, liver problems, gastritis, ulcers, skin problems, joint pain and contusions, wounds, gout, hematomas and thrombophlebitis. Considering the innumerable potentialities of the Symphytum species and their widespread use in the world, it is extremely important to provide data compiling the available literature to identify the areas of intense research and the main gaps in order to design future studies. The present review aims at summarizing the main data on the therapeutic indications of the Symphytum species based on the current evidence, also emphasizing data on both the efficacy and adverse effects. The present review was carried out by consulting PubMed (Medline), Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Database, Science Direct and Google Scholar (as a search engine) databases to retrieve the most updated articles on this topic. All articles were carefully analyzed by the authors to assess their strengths and weaknesses, and to select the most useful ones for the purpose of review, prioritizing articles published from 1956 to 2018. The pharmacological effects of the Symphytum species are attributed to several chemical compounds, among them allantoin, phenolic compounds, glycopeptides, polysaccharides and some toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Not less important to highlight are the risks associated with its use. In fact, there is increasing consumption of over-the-counter drugs, which when associated with conventional drugs can cause serious and even fatal adverse events. Although clinical trials sustain the folk topical application of Symphytum species in musculoskeletal and blunt injuries, with minor adverse effects, its antimicrobial potency was still poorly investigated. Further studies are needed to assess the antimicrobial spectrum of Symphytum species and to characterize the active molecules both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahare Salehi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Bam University of Medical Sciences, Bam 44340847, Iran.
| | - Farukh Sharopov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Rudaki 139, Dushanbe 734003, Tajikistan.
| | - Tugba Boyunegmez Tumer
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Science, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17020, Turkey.
| | - Adem Ozleyen
- Graduate Program of Biomolecular Sciences, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17020, Turkey.
| | - Celia Rodríguez-Pérez
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Granada, Campus of Cartuja, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INYTA) 'José Mataix', Biomedical Research Centre, University of Granada, Avenida del Conocimiento s/n, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Shahira M Ezzat
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Ainy Street, Cairo 11562, Egypt.
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Science and Arts (MSA), 6th October City 12566, Egypt.
| | - Elena Azzini
- Centre for Research on Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Rome 546-00178 , Italy.
| | - Tahereh Hosseinabadi
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 11369, Iran.
| | - Monica Butnariu
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Ioan Sarac
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Cristian Bostan
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, 300645 Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
| | - Krishnendu Acharya
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India.
| | - Surjit Sen
- Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India.
- Department of Botany, Fakir Chand College, Diamond Harbour, West Bengal 743331, India.
| | - Kadriye Nur Kasapoglu
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Ceren Daşkaya-Dikmen
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
- Istanbul Gedik University, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, 34876 Kartal, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Beraat Özçelik
- Istanbul Technical University, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey.
- Bioactive Research & Innovation Food Manufac. Indust. Trade Ltd., Katar Street, Teknokent ARI-3, B110, Sarıyer 34467, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Navid Baghalpour
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 11369, Iran.
| | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Zabol Medicinal Plants Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol 61615-585, Iran.
| | - Patrick Valere Tsouh Fokou
- Antimicrobial and Biocontrol Agents Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde 1, Ngoa Ekelle, Annex Fac. Sci, Yaounde 812, Cameroon.
| | - William C Cho
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, 30 Gascoigne Road, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Natália Martins
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
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18
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Schramm S, Köhler N, Rozhon W. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Biosynthesis, Biological Activities and Occurrence in Crop Plants. Molecules 2019; 24:E498. [PMID: 30704105 PMCID: PMC6385001 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24030498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are heterocyclic secondary metabolites with a typical pyrrolizidine motif predominantly produced by plants as defense chemicals against herbivores. They display a wide structural diversity and occur in a vast number of species with novel structures and occurrences continuously being discovered. These alkaloids exhibit strong hepatotoxic, genotoxic, cytotoxic, tumorigenic, and neurotoxic activities, and thereby pose a serious threat to the health of humans since they are known contaminants of foods including grain, milk, honey, and eggs, as well as plant derived pharmaceuticals and food supplements. Livestock and fodder can be affected due to PA-containing plants on pastures and fields. Despite their importance as toxic contaminants of agricultural products, there is limited knowledge about their biosynthesis. While the intermediates were well defined by feeding experiments, only one enzyme involved in PA biosynthesis has been characterized so far, the homospermidine synthase catalyzing the first committed step in PA biosynthesis. This review gives an overview about structural diversity of PAs, biosynthetic pathways of necine base, and necic acid formation and how PA accumulation is regulated. Furthermore, we discuss their role in plant ecology and their modes of toxicity towards humans and animals. Finally, several examples of PA-producing crop plants are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Schramm
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Nikolai Köhler
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Wilfried Rozhon
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
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19
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Specific Distribution of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Floral Parts of Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) and its Implications for Flower Ecology. J Chem Ecol 2018; 45:128-135. [PMID: 30054770 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-018-0990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a typical class of plant secondary metabolites that are constitutively produced as part of the plant's chemical defense. While roots are a well-established site of pyrrolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis, comfrey plants (Symphytum officinale; Boraginaceae) have been shown to additionally activate alkaloid production in specialized leaves and accumulate PAs in flowers during a short developmental stage in inflorescence development. To gain a better understanding of the accumulation and role of PAs in comfrey flowers and fruits, we have dissected and analyzed their tissues for PA content and patterns. PAs are almost exclusively accumulated in the ovaries, while petals, sepals, and pollen hardly contain PAs. High levels of PAs are detectable in the fruit, but the elaiosome was shown to be PA free. The absence of 7-acetyllycopsamine in floral parts while present in leaves and roots suggests that the additional site of PA biosynthesis provides the pool of PAs for translocation to floral structures. Our data suggest that PA accumulation has to be understood as a highly dynamic system resulting from a combination of efficient transport and additional sites of synthesis that are only temporarily active. Our findings are further discussed in the context of the ecological roles of PAs in comfrey flowers.
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Stegemann T, Kruse L, Ober D. Radioactive Tracer Feeding Experiments and Product Analysis to Determine the Biosynthetic Capability of Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) Leaves for Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids. Bio Protoc 2018; 8:e2719. [DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.2719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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