Studies of sulfate utilization by algae: 8. The ubiquity of sulfate reduction to thiosulfate

Adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate kinase activity in spinach leaf tissue

1. An F(-)-insensitive 3'-nucleotidase was purified from spinach leaf tissue; the enzyme hydrolysed 3'-AMP, 3'-CMP and adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate but not adenosine 5'-nucleotides nor PP(i). The pH optimum of the enzyme was 7.5; K(m) (3'-AMP) was approx. 0.8mm and K(m) (3'-CMP) was approx. 3.3mm. 3'-Nucleotidase activity was not associated with chloroplasts. Purified Mg(2+)-dependent pyrophosphatase, free from F(-)-insensitive 3'-nucleotidase, catalysed some hydrolysis of 3'-AMP; this activity was F(-)-sensitive. 2. Adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate kinase activity was demonstrated in crude spinach extracts supplied with 3'-AMP by the synthesis of the sulphate ester of 2-naphthol in the presence of purified phenol sulphotransferase; purified ATP sulphurylase and pyrophosphatase were also added to synthesize adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate. Adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate kinase activity was associated with chloroplasts and was released by sonication. 3. Isolated chloroplasts synthesized adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate from sulphate and ATP in the presence of a 3'-nucleotide; the formation of adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate was negligible. In the absence of a 3'-nucleotide the synthesis of adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate was negligible, but the formation of adenosine 5'-sulphatophosphate was readily detected. Some properties of the synthesis of adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate by isolated chloroplasts are described. 4. Adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate, synthesized by isolated chloroplasts, was characterized by specific enzyme methods, electrophoresis and i.r. spectrophotometry. 5. Isolated chloroplasts catalysed the incorporation of sulphur from sulphate into cystine/cysteine; the incorporation was enhanced by 3'-AMP and l-serine. It was concluded that adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-sulphatophosphate is an intermediate in the incorporation of sulphur from sulphate into cystine/cysteine.

Flexibility in anaerobic metabolism as revealed in a mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii lacking hydrogenase activity

The green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has a network of fermentation pathways that become active when cells acclimate to anoxia. Hydrogenase activity is an important component of this metabolism, and we have compared metabolic and regulatory responses that accompany anaerobiosis in wild-type C. reinhardtii cells and a null mutant strain for the HYDEF gene (hydEF-1 mutant), which encodes an [FeFe] hydrogenase maturation protein. This mutant has no hydrogenase activity and exhibits elevated accumulation of succinate and diminished production of CO2 relative to the parental strain during dark, anaerobic metabolism. In the absence of hydrogenase activity, increased succinate accumulation suggests that the cells activate alternative pathways for pyruvate metabolism, which contribute to NAD(P)H reoxidation, and continued glycolysis and fermentation in the absence of O2. Fermentative succinate production potentially proceeds via the formation of malate, and increases in the abundance of mRNAs encoding two malate-forming enzymes, pyruvate carboxylase and malic enzyme, are observed in the mutant relative to the parental strain following transfer of cells from oxic to anoxic conditions. Although C. reinhardtii has a single gene encoding pyruvate carboxylase, it has six genes encoding putative malic enzymes. Only one of the malic enzyme genes, MME4, shows a dramatic increase in expression (mRNA abundance) in the hydEF-1 mutant during anaerobiosis. Furthermore, there are marked increases in transcripts encoding fumarase and fumarate reductase, enzymes putatively required to convert malate to succinate. These results illustrate the marked metabolic flexibility of C. reinhardtii and contribute to the development of an informed model of anaerobic metabolism in this and potentially other algae.

The role of 5'-adenylylsulfate reductase in controlling sulfate reduction in plants

Cysteine is the first organic product of sulfate assimilation and as such is the precursor of all molecules containing reduced sulfur including methionine, glutathione, and their many metabolites. In plants, 5'-adenylylsulfate (APS) reductase is hypothesized to be a key regulatory point in sulfate assimilation and reduction. APS reductase catalyzes the two-electron reduction of APS to sulfite using glutathione as an electron donor. This paper reviews the experimental basis for this hypothesis. In addition, the results of an experiment designed to test the hypothesis by bypassing the endogenous APS reductase and its regulatory mechanisms are described. Two different bacterial assimilatory reductases were expressed in transgenic Zea mays, the thioredoxin-dependent APS reductase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the thioredoxin-dependent 3'-phosphoadenylylsulfate reductase from Escherichia coli. Each of them was placed under transcriptional control of the ubiquitin promoter and the protein products were targeted to chloroplasts. The leaves of transgenic Z. mays lines showed significant accumulation of reduced organic thiol compounds including cysteine, gamma-glutamylcysteine, and glutathione; and reduced inorganic forms of sulfur including sulfite and thiosulfate. Both bacterial enzymes appeared to be equally capable of deregulating the assimilative sulfate reduction pathway. The reduced sulfur compounds accumulated to such high levels that the transgenic plants showed evidence of toxicity. The results provide additional evidence that APS reductase is a major control point for sulfate reduction in Z. mays.

Specific deficit in the synthesis of 6-sulfoquinovsyl diglyceride in Chlorella pyrenoidosa

It was found that when Chlorella pyrenoidosa was grown on cysteine as the sole sulfur source, it lost the ability to grow photoautotrophically. When grown in the presence of glucose, cysteine-grown cells displayed a doubling time in the light or dark of 45 h, which is identical to that of cells grown on glucose and SO4 in the dark. This suggests that cells grown on cysteine as sole sulfur source can only grow heterotrophically. In support of this hypothesis, it was found that cysteine-grown cells were defective both in vivo and in vitro in CO2 fixation, although O2 evolution in such cells was normal. Assays of the enzymes of the Calvin cycle indicated that the deficit in CO2 fixation could be ascribed to a lowered phosphoribulokinase activity. A total lipid analysis of Chlorella grown on cysteine revealed that such cells showed a 100-fold deficiency in the purportedly chloroplast-associated 6-sulfoquinovsyl diglyceride. This agrees with earlier reports that cysteine could not serve as a precursor of sulfolipid in Chlorella. No other polar lipid was affected. Large amounts of triglyceride, however, were found in cysteine-grown cells. The biosynthesis of triglyceride provides a means of utilizing reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reducing equivalents not being used for CO2 fixation.

Studies of sulfate utilization by algae: 10. Nutritional and enzymatic characterization of chlorella mutants impaired for sulfate utilization

Seven mutants of Chlorella pyrenoidosa (Emerson strain 3) impaired for sulfate utilization have been isolated after treatment of the wild-type organism with nitrosoguanidine by replica plating on media containing thiosulfate and l-methionine. These mutants fall into three classes based on their ability to grow on sulfate, accumulate compounds labeled from sulfate-(35)S, and reduce adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate-(35)S (PAPS-(35)S) to thiosulfate-(35)S. Mutant Sat(2) (-) cannot grow on sulfate, but it accumulates thiosulfate-(35)S and homocysteic acid-(35)S from sulfate-(35)S in vivo. In addition, extracts of mutant Sat(2) (-) reduce PAPS-(35)S to thiosulfate-(35)S, indicating the possession of enzyme fractions S and A, both of which are required for thiosulfate formation. Mutants Sat(1) (-), Sat(3) (-), Sat(4) (-), Sat(5) (-), and Sat(6) (-) cannot grow on sulfate, and their extracts lack the ability to reduce PAPS-(35)S to thiosulfate-(35)S. Mutant Sat(7) (-)R(1), a probable revertant, can grow on sulfate but still lacks the ability to reduce PAPS-(35)S to thiosulfate-(35)S in vitro. Complementation experiments in vitro show that the block in formation of acid-volatile radioactivity in every case is due to the absence of activity associated with fraction S. All mutants can grow on thiosulfate and all possess the activating enzymes which convert sulfate to PAPS. Through a comparison of nutritional and enzymatic characteristics, the first outlines of a branched and complicated pathway for sulfate reduction in Chlorella are beginning to emerge.

Studies of Sulfate Utilization by Algae: 9. Fractionation of a Cell-free System from Chlorella into Two Activities Necessary for the Reduction of Adenosine 3'-Phosphate 5'-Phosphosulfate to Acid-Volatile Radioactivity

Further properties of the enzymatic system obtained from Chlorella pyrenoidosa (Emerson strain 3) which reduces adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate-(35)S to acid-volatile radioactivity, when fortified with Mg(2+) and 2, 3-dimercaptopropan-1-ol as reductant, are described. Optimal concentrations of adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate-(35)S and Mg(2+) and the pH optimum have been determined. 2,3-Dimercaptopropan-1-ol can be replaced by dithiothreitol, mercaptoethanol, reduced glutathione, cysteine, and cysteamine. Treatment of the crude extracts with ammonium sulfate and alumina C-gamma gel yields two fractions, designated "S" and "A," which must be recombined to obtain acid-volatile radioactivity. Further fractionation of fraction S by ammonium sulfate gradient elution and diethylaminoethyl cellulose chromatography yields approximately a 50-fold increase in specific activity compared to that found in the crude extract. This material appears to contain an active component with a molecular weight estimated by agarose gel chromatography of about 330,000.