Utilization of Exogenous Inorganic Carbon Species in Photosynthesis by Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Photosynthetic oxygenation for urine nitrification

Human urine accounts for only a fraction of the sewage volume, but it contains the majority of valuable nutrient load in wastewater. In this study, synthetic urine was nitrified in a closed photo-bioreactor through photosynthetic oxygenation by means of a consortium of microalgae and nitrifying bacteria. In situ production of oxygen by photosynthetic organisms has the potential to reduce the energy costs linked to conventional aeration. This energy-efficient strategy results in stable urine for further nutrient recovery, while part of the nutrients are biologically recovered in the form of valuable biomass. In this study, urine was nitrified for the first time without conventional aeration at a maximum photosynthetic oxygenation rate of 160 mg O₂ gVSS^-1 d^-1 (VSS: volatile suspended solids). A maximum volumetric nitrification rate of 67 mg N L^-1 d^-1 was achieved on 12% diluted synthetic urine. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiencies were situated between 44% and 83% at a removal rate of 24 mg COD gVSS^-1 d^-1. After 180 days, microscopic observations revealed that Scenedesmus sp. was the dominant microalga. Overall, photosynthetic oxygenation for urine nitrification is promising as a highly electricity efficient approach for further nutrient recovery.

Influence of substrate and pH on the diversity of the aeroterrestrial alga Klebsormidium (Klebsormidiales, Streptophyta): a potentially important factor for sympatric speciation

Our knowledge of the processes involved in speciation of microalgae remains highly limited. In the present study, we investigated a potential role of ecological speciation processes in diversification of the filamentous green alga Klebsormidium. We examined 12 strains representing four different genotypes. The strains were collected from sandstone and limestone rocks and were cultivated at five different pH levels ranging from pH 4 to pH 8. We determined the responses of the 12 strains to the experimental pH conditions by (1) measuring the effective quantum yield of photosystem II, and (2) determining the growth rates after cultivation at different pH levels. Strong differences were found between the results obtained by these two methods. Direct counting of cells revealed a strong ecological differentiation of strains of Klebsormidium isolated from different substrate types. Strains isolated from limestone showed the highest growth rates at higher pH levels; whereas, the strains isolated from sandstone exhibited two distinct growth responses with optima at pH 5 and 6, respectively. In contrast, the effective quantum yield of photosystem II was always down-regulated at lower pH values, probably due to dissolved inorganic carbon limitation. In general, we determined distinct ecophysiological differentiation among distantly and closely related lineages, thereby corroborating our hypothesis that the sympatric speciation of terrestrial algae is driven by ecological divergence. We clearly showed that pH is a critical ecological factor that influences the diversity of autotrophic protists in terrestrial habitats.

CO2 biofixation and carbonic anhydrase activity in Scenedesmus obliquus SA1 cultivated in large scale open system

The present study deals with the large scale open system cultivation of the novel microalga: Scenedesmus obliquus SA1 (KC733762) previously isolated in our laboratory. SA1 strain was cultivated in open system at varying CO2 levels ranging from 0.03% to 35% (v/v) and subsequently the carbonic anhydrase activity (CA) and the biochemical properties were monitored. Maximum biomass concentration (1.39 ± 0.023 g L(-1)), CO2 fixation rate (97.65 ± 1.03 mg L(-1)d(-1)) and total CA activity (166.86 ± 3.30 E.U./mg chla) were obtained at 35% CO2. CA inhibitors: acetazolamide and ethoxyzolamide inhibited the external and internal enzyme activity in SA1. High CO2 levels were favorable for the accumulation of lipids and chlorophyll. The present results suggested that SA1 possessed high CO2 tolerance and high carbohydrate, lipid and chlorophyll content when cultivated in open system thus being suitable for CO2 mitigation in outdoor ponds and subsequent generation of value added products.

Biology and Industrial Applications of Chlorella: Advances and Prospects

Chlorella represents a group of eukaryotic green microalgae that has been receiving increasing scientific and commercial interest. It possesses high photosynthetic ability and is capable of growing robustly under mixotrophic and heterotrophic conditions as well. Chlorella has long been considered as a source of protein and is now industrially produced for human food and animal feed. Chlorella is also rich in oil, an ideal feedstock for biofuels. The exploration of biofuel production by Chlorella is underway. Chlorella has the ability to fix carbon dioxide efficiently and to remove nutrients of nitrogen and phosphorous, making it a good candidate for greenhouse gas biomitigation and wastewater bioremediation. In addition, Chlorella shows potential as an alternative expression host for recombinant protein production, though challenges remain to be addressed. Currently, omics analyses of certain Chlorella strains are being performed, which will help to unravel the biological implications of Chlorella and facilitate the future exploration of industrial applications.

Effect of O₂:CO₂ ratio on the primary metabolism of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

High oxygen:carbon dioxide ratios may have a negative effect on growth and productivity of microalgae. To investigate the effect of O₂ and CO₂ concentrations and the ratio between these on the metabolism of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii we performed turbidostat experiments at different O₂:CO₂ ratios. These experiments showed that elevated O₂ concentrations and the corresponding increase in the ratio of O₂:CO₂ common in photobioreactors led to a reduction of growth and biomass yield on light with 20-30%. This is most probably related to the oxygenase activity of Rubisco and the resulting process of photorespiration. Using metabolic flux modeling with measured rates for each experiment we were able to quantify the ratio of the oxygenase reaction to the carboxylase reaction of Rubisco and could demonstrate that photorespiration indeed can cause the reduction in biomass yield on light. The calculated ratio of the oxygenase reaction to the carboxylase reaction was 16.6% and 20.5% for air with 2% CO₂ and 1% CO₂, respectively. Thus photorespiration has a significant impact on the biomass yield on light already at conditions common in photobioreactors (air with 2% CO₂).

Quantification of the Contribution of CO2, HCO3-, and External Carbonic Anhydrase to Photosynthesis at Low Dissolved Inorganic Carbon in Chlorella saccharophila

An equation has been developed incorporating whole-cell rate constants for CO2 and HCO3- that describes accurately photosynthesis (Phs) in suspensions of unicellular algae at low dissolved inorganic carbon. At pH 8.0 the concentration of CO2 available to the algal cells depends on the rate of supply from, and the loss to, HCO3- and the rate of use by the cells. At elevated cell densities (>30 mg chlorophyll [Chl] L-1), at which CO2 use by the cells is high, the slope of a graph of absolute Phs versus Chl concentration approaches the rate of Phs on a milligram of Chl basis because of HCO3- use alone. The slope of a graph of Phs versus HCO3- will be the rate constant for HCO3-, and for Chlorella saccharophila it was 0.16 L mg-1 Chl h-1. The difference between the constants for dissolved inorganic carbon (measured in cells with external carbonic anhydrase) and HCO3-1 is the constant for CO2, which was 26 L mg-1 Chl h-1. This difference causes the half-saturation constant for Phs to increase 5- to 6-fold at high cell densities. The increase in CO2 use as a result of external carbonic anhydrase is described mathematically as a function of cell density.

Inorganic-carbon uptake by the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Air-grown cells of the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum showed only 10% of the carbonic-anhydrase activity of air-grown Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Measurement of carbonic-anhydrase activity using intact cells and cell extracts showed all activity was intracellular in Phaeodactylum. Photosynthetic oxygen evolution at constant inorganic-carbon concentration but varying pH showed that exogenous CO2 was poorly utilized by the cells. Sodium ions increased the affinity of Phaeodactylum for HCO 3 (-) and even at high HCO 3 (-) concentrations sodium ions enhanced HCO 3 (-) utilization. The internal inorganic-carbon pool (HCO 3 (-) +CO2] was measured using a silicone-oil-layer centrifugal filtering technique. The internal [HCO 3 (-) +CO2] concentration never exceeded 15% of the external [HCO 3 (-) +CO2] concentration even at the lowest external concentrations tested. It is concluded that an internal accumulation of inorganic carbon relative to the external medium does not occur in P. tricornutum.

Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase content determined with [C]carboxypentitol bisphosphate in plants and algae

As is the case with spinach ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), [(14)C]carboxyarabinitol bisphosphate (CABP) bound to purified Chlorella Rubisco with a molar ratio of unity to large subunit of the enzyme. The concentration of binding sites in extracts of photosynthetic organisms was determined by reacting the extracts with [(14)C]-carboxypentitol bisphosphate (CPBP) and precipitating the resultant Rubisco-[(14)C]CABP complex with a combination of polyethylene glycol-4000 and MgCl(2). Plots of the relationship between concentrations of [(14)C] CPBP in the reaction mixture and the precipitated [(14)C]CPBP gave a straight line and the concentration of binding sites were estimated by extrapolation to zero [(14)C]CPBP since the dissociation constant of CABP with Rubisco is 10(-11) molar. Spinach, pea, and soybean leaves contained 6.4 to 6.8 milligrams Rubisco per milligram chlorophyll, corresponding to 92 to 97 ribulose bisphosphate-binding sites per milligram chlorophyll. The Rubisco content of sunflower and wheat leaves was 5.3 to 5.5 milligrams per milligram chlorophyll. The concentrations in C(4) plants were not uniform and corn and Panicum miliaceum leaves contained 3 and 7 milligrams Rubisco per milligram chlorophyll. The Rubisco content of green algae was one-fifth to one-sixth that of C(3) plant leaves and was affected by the CO(2) concentration during growth. The content of Euglena and blue-green algae is also reported.

Inorganic Carbon Uptake by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The rates of CO(2)-dependent O(2) evolution by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, grown with either air levels of CO(2) or air with 5% CO(2), were measured at varying external pH. Over a pH range of 4.5 to 8.5, the external concentration of CO(2) required for half-maximal rates of photosynthesis was constant, averaging 25 micromolar for cells grown with 5% CO(2). This is consistent with the hypothesis that these cells take up CO(2) but not HCO(3) (-) from the medium and that their CO(2) requirement for photosynthesis reflects the K(m)(CO(2)) of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase. Over a pH range of 4.5 to 9.5, cells grown with air required an external CO(2) concentration of only 0.4 to 3 micromolar for half-maximal rates of photosynthesis, consistent with a mechanism to accumulate external inorganic carbon in these cells. Air-grown cells can utilize external inorganic carbon efficiently even at pH 4.5 where the HCO(3) (-) concentration is very low (40 nanomolar). However, at high external pH, where HCO(3) (-) predominates, these cells cannot accumulate inorganic carbon as efficiently and require higher concentrations of NaHCO(3) to maintain their photosynthetic activity. These results imply that, at the plasma membrane, CO(2) is the permeant inorganic carbon species in air-grown cells as well as in cells grown on 5% CO(2). If active HCO(3) (-) accumulation is a step in CO(2) concentration by air-grown Chlamydomonas, it probably takes place in internal compartments of the cell and not at the plasmalemma.

Photorespiration in Air and High CO(2)-Grown Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Oxygen inhibition of photosynthesis and CO(2) evolution during photorespiration were compared in high CO(2)-grown and air-grown Chlorella pyrenoidosa, using the artificial leaf technique at pH 5.0. High CO(2) cells, in contrast to air-grown cells, exhibited a marked inhibition of photosynthesis by O(2), which appeared to be competitive and similar in magnitude to that in higher C(3) plants. With increasing time after transfer to air, the photosynthetic rate in high CO(2) cells increased while the O(2) effect declined. Photorespiration, measured as the difference between (14)CO(2) and (12)CO(2) uptake, was much greater and sensitive to O(2) in high CO(2) cells. Some CO(2) evolution was also present in air-grown algae; however, it did not appear to be sensitive to O(2). True photosynthesis was not affected by O(2) in either case. The data indicate that the difference between high CO(2) and air-grown algae could be attributed to the magnitude of CO(2) evolution. This conclusion is discussed with reference to the oxygenase reaction and the control of photorespiration in algae.

Photorespiration and Oxygen Inhibition of Photosynthesis in Chlorella pyrenoidosa

The inhibition of photosynthesis by O(2) in air-grown Chlorella pyrenoidosa was investigated using three experimental techniques (artificial leaf, aqueous method, and O(2) electrode) to measure carbon assimilation. CO(2) response curves were determined under different O(2), pH, and temperature conditions. Regardless of the experimental technique and condition, O(2) inhibition was not evident until a concentration of 50% was reached; V(max) values were reduced whereas K(m) (CO(2)) values were unaffected by the increasing O(2) concentration. The response of photosynthesis to O(2) was independent of CO(2) and HCO(3) (-) concentrations as well as temperature. Relative rates of photosynthesis showed a 4 to 5% stimulation in 2% O(2), a 12% inhibition in 50% O(2), and a 24% inhibition in 100% O(2). The inhibition by 50% O(2) was still reversible after 20 minutes exposure whereas 100% O(2) caused irreversible inhibition after only 4 minutes.The O(2) inhibition is discussed in terms of the oxygenase reaction and a Mehler reaction supporting pseudocyclic electron flow. The results are inconsistent with the proposals that photorespiration exists in these algae and that a CO(2)-concentrating mechanism suppresses the O(2) inhibition of photosynthesis.