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Ármannsdóttir AL, Lecomte C, Lemaire E, Brynjólfsson S, Briem K. Perceptions and biomechanical effects of varying prosthetic ankle stiffness during uphill walking: A case series. Gait Posture 2024; 108:354-360. [PMID: 38227995 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2024.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prosthetic foot stiffness, which is typically invariable for commercially available prosthetic feet, needs to be considered when prescribing a prosthetic foot. While a biological foot adapts its function according to the movement task, an individual with lower limb amputation may be limited during more functionally demanding gait tasks by their conventional energy storing and return prosthetic foot. RESEARCH QUESTION How do changes in prosthetic foot stiffness during incline walking affect biomechanical measures as well as perception of participants. METHODS Kinetic and kinematic data were collected during incline walking, for five participants with trans-tibial amputation. A mixed model analysis of variance was used to analyse the effects of changing the stiffness during incline walking, using a novel variable-stiffness unit built on a commercially available prosthetic foot. Biomechanical results were also analysed on an individual level alongside the participant feedback, for a better understanding of the various strategies and perceptions exhibited during incline walking. RESULTS Statistically significant effects were only observed on the biomechanical parameters directly related to prosthetic ankle kinematics and kinetics (i.e., peak prosthetic ankle dorsiflexion, peak prosthetic ankle power, dynamic joint stiffness during controlled dorsiflexion). Participant perception during walking was affected by changes in stiffness. Individual analyses revealed varied perceptions and varied biomechanical responses among participants. SIGNIFICANCE While changes in prosthesis mechanical properties influenced the amputee's experience, minimal immediate effects were found with the overall gait pattern. The reported inter-participant variability may be due to the person's physical characteristics or habitual gait pattern, which may influence prosthesis function. The ability to vary prosthetic foot stiffness during the assessment phase of setting up a prosthesis could provide useful information to guide selection of the appropriate prosthetic device for acceptable performance across a range of activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lára Ármannsdóttir
- Research Centre of Movement Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland; Össur hf., Grjótháls 5, 110 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Christophe Lecomte
- Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland; Össur hf., Grjótháls 5, 110 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Edward Lemaire
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Sigurður Brynjólfsson
- Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Kristín Briem
- Research Centre of Movement Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
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Ruxin TR, Halsne EG, Hafner BJ, Shofer J, Hansen AH, Childers WL, Caputo JM, Morgenroth DC. The development of rating scales to evaluate experiential prosthetic foot preference for people with lower limb amputation. PM R 2024; 16:150-159. [PMID: 37329558 DOI: 10.1002/pmrj.13024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selection of a foot is an important aspect of prosthetic prescription and vital to maximizing mobility and functional goals after lower limb amputation. Development of a standardized approach to soliciting user experiential preferences is needed to improve evaluation and comparison of prosthetic feet. OBJECTIVE To develop rating scales to assess prosthetic foot preference and to evaluate use of these scales in people with transtibial amputation after trialing different prosthetic feet. DESIGN Participant-blinded, repeated measures crossover trial. SETTING Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense Medical Centers, laboratory setting. PARTICIPANTS Seventy-two male prosthesis users with unilateral transtibial amputation started, and 68 participants completed this study. INTERVENTIONS Participants trialed three mobility-level appropriate commercial prosthetic feet briefly in the laboratory. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES "Activity-specific" rating scales were developed to assess participants' ability with a given prosthetic foot to perform typical mobility activities (eg, walking at different speeds, on inclines, and stairs) and "global" scales to rate overall perceived energy required to walk, satisfaction, and willingness to regularly use the prosthetic foot. Foot preference was determined by comparing the rating scale scores, after laboratory testing. RESULTS The greatest within-participant differences in scores among feet were observed in the "incline" activity, where 57% ± 6% of participants reported 2+ point differences. There was a significant association (p < .05) between all "activity-specific" rating scores (except standing) and each "global" rating score. CONCLUSIONS The standardized rating scales developed in this study could be used to assess prosthetic foot preference in both the research and clinical settings to guide prosthetic foot prescription for people with lower limb amputation capable of a range of mobility levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia R Ruxin
- VA RR&D Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Elizabeth G Halsne
- VA RR&D Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Brian J Hafner
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jane Shofer
- VA RR&D Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Andrew H Hansen
- Minneapolis Adaptive Design & Engineering (MADE) Program, Minneapolis VA Health Care System, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
- Departments of Rehabilitation Medicine & Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - W Lee Childers
- Extremity Trauma and Amputation Center of Excellence, Houston, Texas, USA
- Center for the Intrepid, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Brooke Army Medical Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Joshua M Caputo
- Human Motion Technologies LLC (Humotech), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David C Morgenroth
- VA RR&D Center for Limb Loss and Mobility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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3
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Mohammed El Husaini M, Maberry A, Martin AE. Validation of a modified visual analogue scale to measure user-perceived comfort of a lower-limb exoskeleton. Sci Rep 2023; 13:20484. [PMID: 37993504 PMCID: PMC10665473 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-47430-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023] Open
Abstract
User perceived exoskeleton comfort is likely important for device acceptance, but there is currently no validated instrument to measure it. The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is an existing tool to measure subjective human feedback by asking the user to mark a point on a line with each end of the line representing an opposing anchor statement. It can be modified to show the previous response, allowing the subject to directly indicate if the current condition is better or worse than the previous one. The goal of this study was to determine how well the modified VAS could measure user-perceived comfort as the exoskeleton control parameters were varied. To validate the survey, 14 healthy subjects walked in a pair of ankle exoskeletons with approximately ten distinct sets of control parameters tested in a prescribed order. Each set of control parameters was tested twice. After each trial, user-perceived comfort was measured using a two-question VAS survey. The repeatability coefficient was approximately 40 mm, similar to the total range of responses. The results were also inconsistent, with relative rankings between consecutive pairs of conditions matching for approximately 50% of comparisons. Thus, as tested, the VAS was not repeatable or consistent. It is possible that subject adaptation within the trial and over the course of the experiment may have impacted the results. Additional work is needed to develop a repeatable method to measure comfort and to determine how perceived comfort varies as subjects' gain exoskeleton experience.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Axl Maberry
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Anne E Martin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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4
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Lee UH, Shetty VS, Franks PW, Tan J, Evangelopoulos G, Ha S, Rouse EJ. User preference optimization for control of ankle exoskeletons using sample efficient active learning. Sci Robot 2023; 8:eadg3705. [PMID: 37851817 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.adg3705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
One challenge to achieving widespread success of augmentative exoskeletons is accurately adjusting the controller to provide cooperative assistance with their wearer. Often, the controller parameters are "tuned" to optimize a physiological or biomechanical objective. However, these approaches are resource intensive, while typically only enabling optimization of a single objective. In reality, the exoskeleton user experience is likely derived from many factors, including comfort, fatigue, and stability, among others. This work introduces an approach to conveniently tune the four parameters of an exoskeleton controller to maximize user preference. Our overarching strategy is to leverage the wearer to internally balance the experiential factors of wearing the system. We used an evolutionary algorithm to recommend potential parameters, which were ranked by a neural network that was pretrained with previously collected user preference data. The controller parameters that had the highest preference ranking were provided to the exoskeleton, and the wearer responded with real-time feedback as a forced-choice comparison. Our approach was able to converge on controller parameters preferred by the wearer with an accuracy of 88% on average when compared with randomly generated parameters. User-preferred settings stabilized in 43 ± 7 queries. This work demonstrates that user preference can be leveraged to tune a partial-assist ankle exoskeleton in real time using a simple, intuitive interface, highlighting the potential for translating lower-limb wearable technologies into our daily lives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ung Hee Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Robotics, University of Michigan, 2505 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- X, the Moonshot Factory, 100 Mayfield Ave., Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
| | - Varun S Shetty
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Robotics, University of Michigan, 2505 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Patrick W Franks
- X, the Moonshot Factory, 100 Mayfield Ave., Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
| | - Jie Tan
- Robotics at Google, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
| | | | - Sehoon Ha
- Robotics at Google, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
- Georgia Institute of Technology, 85 Fifth Street NW, Atlanta, GA 30308, USA
| | - Elliott J Rouse
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Robotics, University of Michigan, 2505 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- X, the Moonshot Factory, 100 Mayfield Ave., Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
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5
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Zhao S, Yu Z, Wang Z, Liu H, Zhou Z, Ruan L, Wang Q. A Learning-Free Method for Locomotion Mode Prediction by Terrain Reconstruction and Visual-Inertial Odometry. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2023; 31:3895-3905. [PMID: 37782585 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2023.3321077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
This research introduces a novel, highly precise, and learning-free approach to locomotion mode prediction, a technique with potential for broad applications in the field of lower-limb wearable robotics. This study represents the pioneering effort to amalgamate 3D reconstruction and Visual-Inertial Odometry (VIO) into a locomotion mode prediction method, which yields robust prediction performance across diverse subjects and terrains, and resilience against various factors including camera view, walking direction, step size, and disturbances from moving obstacles without the need of parameter adjustments. The proposed Depth-enhanced Visual-Inertial Odometry (D-VIO) has been meticulously designed to operate within computational constraints of wearable configurations while demonstrating resilience against unpredictable human movements and sparse features. Evidence of its effectiveness, both in terms of accuracy and operational time consumption, is substantiated through tests conducted using open-source dataset and closed-loop evaluations. Comprehensive experiments were undertaken to validate its prediction accuracy across various test conditions such as subjects, scenarios, sensor mounting positions, camera views, step sizes, walking directions, and disturbances from moving obstacles. A comprehensive prediction accuracy rate of 99.00% confirms the efficacy, generality, and robustness of the proposed method.
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Bartlett HL, Shepherd MK, Lawson BE. A passive dorsiflexing ankle prosthesis to increase minimum foot clearance during swing. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGIES 2023; 4:e15. [PMID: 38487763 PMCID: PMC10936342 DOI: 10.1017/wtc.2023.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
The biological ankle dorsiflexes several degrees during swing to provide adequate clearance between the foot and ground, but conventional energy storage and return (ESR) prosthetic feet remain in their neutral position, increasing the risk of toe scuffs and tripping. We present a new prosthetic ankle intended to reduce fall risk by dorsiflexing the ankle joint during swing, thereby increasing the minimum clearance between the foot and ground. Unlike previous approaches to providing swing dorsiflexion such as powered ankles or hydraulic systems with dissipative yielding in stance, our ankle device features a spring-loaded linkage that adopts a neutral angle during stance, allowing ESR, but adopts a dorsiflexed angle during swing. The ankle unit was designed, fabricated, and assessed in level ground walking trials on a unilateral transtibial prosthesis user to experimentally validate its stance and swing phase behaviors. The assessment consisted of three conditions: the ankle in an operational configuration, the ankle in a locked configuration (unable to dorsiflex), and the subject's daily use ESR prosthesis. When the ankle was operational, minimum foot clearance (MFC) increased by 13 mm relative to the locked configuration and 15 mm relative to his daily use prosthesis. Stance phase energy return was not significantly impacted in the operational configuration. The increase in MFC provided by the passive dorsiflexing ankle prosthesis may be sufficient to decrease the rate of falls experienced by prosthesis users in the real world.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Max K. Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Physical Therapy, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
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Ingraham KA, Remy CD, Rouse EJ. The role of user preference in the customized control of robotic exoskeletons. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabj3487. [PMID: 35353602 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abj3487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
User preference is a promising objective for the control of robotic exoskeletons because it may capture the multifactorial nature of exoskeleton use. However, to use it, we must first understand its characteristics in the context of exoskeleton control. Here, we systematically measured the control preferences of individuals wearing bilateral ankle exoskeletons during walking. We investigated users' repeatability identifying their preferences and how preference changes with walking speed, device exposure, and between individuals with different technical backgrounds. Twelve naive and 12 knowledgeable nondisabled participants identified their preferred assistance in repeated trials by simultaneously self-tuning the magnitude and timing of peak torque. They were blinded to the control parameters and relied solely on their perception of the assistance to guide their tuning. We found that participants' preferences ranged from 7.9 to 19.4 newton-meters and 54.1 to 59.2 percent of the gait cycle. Across trials, participants repeatably identified their preferences with a mean standard deviation of 1.7 newton-meters and 1.5 percent of the gait cycle. Within a trial, participants converged on their preference in 105 seconds. As the experiment progressed, naive users preferred higher torque magnitude. At faster walking speeds, these individuals were more precise at identifying the magnitude of their preferred assistance. Knowledgeable users preferred higher torque than naive users. These results highlight that although preference is a dynamic quantity, individuals can reliably identify their preferences. This work motivates strategies for the control of lower limb exoskeletons in which individuals customize assistance according to their unique preferences and provides meaningful insight into how users interact with exoskeletons.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Ingraham
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - C D Remy
- Institute for Nonlinear Mechanics, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - E J Rouse
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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8
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Peng X, Acosta-Sojo Y, Wu MI, Stirling L. Actuation Timing Perception of a Powered Ankle Exoskeleton and its Associated Ankle Angle Changes During Walking. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2022; 30:869-877. [PMID: 35333715 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2022.3162213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Robotic ankle exoskeletons have the potential to extend human ability, and actuation timing serves as one of the critical parameters in its controller design. While many experiments have investigated the optimal actuation timing values to achieve different objective functions (e.g. minimizing metabolic cost), studies on users' perception of control parameters are gaining interest as it gives information on people's comfort, coordination, and trust in using devices, as well as providing foundations on how the sensorimotor system detects the exoskeleton behavior changes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate people's sensitivity to changes in exoskeleton actuation timing and its associated exoskeleton ankle angle changes during walking. Participants (n=15) with little or no prior experience with ankle exoskeletons were recruited and performed a psychophysical experiment to characterize their just-noticeable difference (JND) thresholds for actuation timing. Participants wore a bilateral active ankle exoskeleton and compared pairs of torque profiles with different actuation timings and low peak torque (0.225 Nm/kg) while walking on the treadmill. The mean timing JND across participants was 2.8±0.6% stride period. Individuals exhibited different sensitivity towards actuation timing, and their associated exoskeleton ankle angle changes also varied. The variance in ankle angle changes might be explained by their differences in ankle stiffness and different ankle torques provided during walking. The results provide insights into how people perceive the changes in exoskeleton control parameters and show individual differences in exoskeleton usage. The actuation timing JND found in this study can also help determine the necessary controller precision.
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Bonnet X, Villa C, Loiret I, Lavaste F, Pillet H. Distribution of joint work during walking on slopes among persons with transfemoral amputation. J Biomech 2021; 129:110843. [PMID: 34773834 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Persons with above-knee amputation have increased energy consumption and greater difficulty in negotiating uphill and downhill slopes. Walking on slopes requires an adaptation of the positive and negative work performed by the joints of the lower limb to propel the center of mass. Modern prosthetic feet and knees can only partially adapt to changes in inclination, and the redistribution of joint work among persons with above-knee amputation is not described in the literature. Level, upslope and downslope walking (at 5% and 12% inclinations) were investigated for twelve subjects with transfemoral amputation fitted with an Energy Storing And Return foot (ESAR) and a Microprocessor controlled Prosthetic Knee (MPK) versus a control group of seventeen asymptomatic subjects. Lower limb joint and individual limb power and work were compared between prosthetic, contralateral and control limbs. The prosthesis dissipates less energy than the joints of the lower limb of the control group when descending the slope, but the demand on the contralateral limb is limited by a lower speed and step length. The huge deficit of positive work produced by the prosthetic ankle cannot be compensated by the residual hip during level and slope ascent which transfers the demand for energy production to the contralateral limb up to 40% on a 12% slope. This study highlights that prosthetic devices (ESAR foot and MPK) for persons with above-knee amputation present some limitations during slope walking that cannot be compensated by the residual hip and increase the work performed by the contralateral limb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Bonnet
- Institut de Biomécanique Humaine Georges Charpak, Arts et Métiers Sciences et Technologies, Paris, France.
| | - Coralie Villa
- Institution Nationale des Invalides, Centre d'Etude et de Recherche sur l'Appareillage des Handicapés, Creteil, France
| | - Isabelle Loiret
- Centre de médecine physique et de réadaptation Louis Pierquin IRR-UGECAM, Nord-Est 54042 Nancy Cedex, France
| | - François Lavaste
- Institut de Biomécanique Humaine Georges Charpak, Arts et Métiers Sciences et Technologies, Paris, France
| | - Helene Pillet
- Institut de Biomécanique Humaine Georges Charpak, Arts et Métiers Sciences et Technologies, Paris, France
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Clites TR, Shepherd MK, Ingraham KA, Wontorcik L, Rouse EJ. Understanding patient preference in prosthetic ankle stiffness. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:128. [PMID: 34433472 PMCID: PMC8390224 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00916-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND User preference has the potential to facilitate the design, control, and prescription of prostheses, but we do not yet understand which physiological factors drive preference, or if preference is associated with clinical benefits. METHODS Subjects with unilateral below-knee amputation walked on a custom variable-stiffness prosthetic ankle and manipulated a dial to determine their preferred prosthetic ankle stiffness at three walking speeds. We evaluated anthropomorphic, metabolic, biomechanical, and performance-based descriptors at stiffness levels surrounding each subject's preferred stiffness. RESULTS Subjects preferred lower stiffness values at their self-selected treadmill walking speed, and elected to walk faster overground with ankle stiffness at or above their preferred stiffness. Preferred stiffness maximized the kinematic symmetry between prosthetic and unaffected joints, but was not significantly correlated with body mass or metabolic rate. CONCLUSION These results imply that some physiological factors are weighted more heavily when determining preferred stiffness, and that preference may be associated with clinically relevant improvements in gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R Clites
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Max K Shepherd
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Shirley Ryan Ability Lab, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Kimberly A Ingraham
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Leslie Wontorcik
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan Orthotics and Prosthetics Center, Ann Arbor, MI, 48104, USA
| | - Elliott J Rouse
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Neurobionics Lab, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
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