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Cornejo J, Sierra-Garcia JE, Gomez-Gil FJ, Weitzenfeld A, Acevedo FE, Escalante I, Recuero E, Wehrtmann IS. Bio-inspired design of hard-bodied mobile robots based on arthropod morphologies: a 10 year systematic review and bibliometric analysis. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2024; 19:051001. [PMID: 38866026 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ad5778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
This research presents a 10-year systematic review based on bibliometric analysis of the bio-inspired design of hard-bodied mobile robot mechatronic systems considering the anatomy of arthropods. These are the most diverse group of animals whose flexible biomechanics and adaptable morphology, thus, it can inspire robot development. Papers were reviewed from two international databases (Scopus and Web of Science) and one platform (Aerospace Research Central), then they were classified according to: Year of publication (January 2013 to April 2023), arthropod group, published journal, conference proceedings, editorial publisher, research teams, robot classification according to the name of arthropod, limb's locomotion support, number of legs/arms, number of legs/body segments, limb's degrees of freedom, mechanical actuation type, modular system, and environment adaptation. During the screening, more than 33 000 works were analyzed. Finally, a total of 174 studies (90 journal-type, 84 conference-type) were selected for in-depth study: Insecta-hexapods (53.8%), Arachnida-octopods (20.7%), Crustacea-decapods (16.1%), and Myriapoda-centipedes and millipedes (9.2%). The study reveals that the most active editorials are the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., Springer, MDPI, and Elsevier, while the most influential researchers are located in the USA, China, Singapore, and Japan. Most works pertained to spiders, crabs, caterpillars, cockroaches, and centipedes. We conclude that 'arthrobotics' research, which merges arthropods and robotics, is constantly growing and includes a high number of relevant studies with findings that can inspire new methods to design biomechatronic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Cornejo
- Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Burgos, 09006 Burgos, Spain
| | | | | | - Alfredo Weitzenfeld
- Biorobotics Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States of America
| | - Flor E Acevedo
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Ignacio Escalante
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois-Chicago, 845 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60607, United States of America
| | - Ernesto Recuero
- Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, 277 Poole Agricultural Center, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0310, United States of America
| | - Ingo S Wehrtmann
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica
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Hammad A, Armanini SF. Landing and take-off capabilities of bioinspired aerial vehicles: a review. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2024; 19:031001. [PMID: 38467070 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ad3263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Bioinspired flapping-wing micro aerial vehicles (FWMAVs) have emerged over the last two decades as a promising new type of robot. Their high thrust-to-weight ratio, versatility, safety, and maneuverability, especially at small scales, could make them more suitable than fixed-wing and multi-rotor vehicles for various applications, especially in cluttered, confined environments and in close proximity to humans, flora, and fauna. Unlike natural flyers, however, most FWMAVs currently have limited take-off and landing capabilities. Natural flyers are able to take off and land effortlessly from a wide variety of surfaces and in complex environments. Mimicking such capabilities on flapping-wing robots would considerably enhance their practical usage. This review presents an overview of take-off and landing techniques for FWMAVs, covering different approaches and mechanism designs, as well as dynamics and control aspects. The special case of perching is also included. As well as discussing solutions investigated for FWMAVs specifically, we also present solutions that have been developed for different types of robots but may be applicable to flapping-wing ones. Different approaches are compared and their suitability for different applications and types of robots is assessed. Moreover, research and technology gaps are identified, and promising future work directions are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Hammad
- eAviation Laboratory, TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University Munich, Ottobrunn, Germany
| | - Sophie F Armanini
- eAviation Laboratory, TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University Munich, Ottobrunn, Germany
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Fuller S, Yu Z, Talwekar YP. A gyroscope-free visual-inertial flight control and wind sensing system for 10-mg robots. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabq8184. [DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abq8184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Tiny “gnat robots,” weighing just a few milligrams, were first conjectured in the 1980s. How to stabilize one if it were to hover like a small insect has not been answered. Challenges include the requirement that sensors be both low mass and high bandwidth and that silicon-micromachined rate gyroscopes are too heavy. The smallest robot to perform controlled hovering uses a sensor suite weighing hundreds of milligrams. Here, we demonstrate that an accelerometer represents perhaps the most direct way to stabilize flight while satisfying the extreme size, speed, weight, and power constraints of a flying robot even as it scales down to just a few milligrams. As aircraft scale reduces, scaling physics dictates that the ratio of aerodynamic drag to mass increases. This results in reduced noise in an accelerometer’s airspeed measurement. We show through simulation and experiment on a 30-gram robot that a 2-milligram off-the-shelf accelerometer is able in principle to stabilize a 10-milligram robot despite high noise in the sensor itself. Inspired by wind-vision sensory fusion in the flight controller of the fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster
, we then added a tiny camera and efficient, fly-inspired autocorrelation-based visual processing to allow the robot to estimate and reject wind as well as control its attitude and flight velocity using a Kalman filter. Our biology-inspired approach, validated on a small flying helicopter, has a wind gust response comparable to the fruit fly and is small and efficient enough for a 10-milligram flying vehicle (weighing less than a grain of rice).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawyer Fuller
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Zhitao Yu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yash P. Talwekar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Zhang H, Leng J, Liu D, Zhan W, Yun R, Liu Z, Qi M, Yan X. A Centimeter-Scale Electrohydrodynamic Multi-Modal Robot Capable of Rolling, Hopping, and Taking Off. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3207556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hengyu Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaming Leng
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Di Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Wencheng Zhan
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Ruide Yun
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Mingjing Qi
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
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Gao H, Lynch J, Gravish N. Soft Molds with Micro-Machined Internal Skeletons Improve Robustness of Flapping-Wing Robots. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1489. [PMID: 36144112 PMCID: PMC9502397 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Mobile millimeter and centimeter scale robots often use smart composite manufacturing (SCM) for the construction of body components and mechanisms. The fabrication of SCM mechanisms requires laser machining and laminating flexible, adhesive, and structural materials into small-scale hinges, transmissions, and, ultimately, wings or legs. However, a fundamental limitation of SCM components is the plastic deformation and failure of flexures. In this work, we demonstrate that encasing SCM components in a soft silicone mold dramatically improves the durability of SCM flexure hinges and provides robustness to SCM components. We demonstrate this advance in the design of a flapping-wing robot that uses an underactuated compliant transmission fabricated with an inner SCM skeleton and exterior silicone mold. The transmission design is optimized to achieve desired wingstroke requirements and to allow for independent motion of each wing. We validate these design choices in bench-top tests, measuring transmission compliance, kinematics, and fatigue. We integrate the transmission with laminate wings and two types of actuation, demonstrating elastic energy exchange and limited lift-off capabilities. Lastly, we tested collision mitigation through flapping-wing experiments that obstructed the motion of a wing. These experiments demonstrate that an underactuated compliant transmission can provide resilience and robustness to flapping-wing robots.
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Fath A, Xia T, Li W. Recent Advances in the Application of Piezoelectric Materials in Microrobotic Systems. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1422. [PMID: 36144045 PMCID: PMC9501207 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in precision manufacturing technology and a thorough understanding of the properties of piezoelectric materials have made it possible for researchers to develop innovative microrobotic systems, which draw more attention to the challenges of utilizing microrobots in areas that are inaccessible to ordinary robots. This review paper provides an overview of the recent advances in the application of piezoelectric materials in microrobots. The challenges of microrobots in the direction of autonomy are categorized into four sections: mechanisms, power, sensing, and control. In each section, innovative research ideas are presented to inspire researchers in their prospective microrobot designs according to specific applications. Novel mechanisms for the mobility of piezoelectric microrobots are reviewed and described. Additionally, as the piezoelectric micro-actuators require high-voltage electronics and onboard power supplies, we review ways of energy harvesting technology and lightweight micro-sensing mechanisms that contain piezoelectric devices to provide feedback, facilitating the use of control strategies to achieve the autonomous untethered movement of microrobots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Fath
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Vermont, 33 Colchester Ave., Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Tian Xia
- Department of Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, University of Vermont, 33 Colchester Ave., Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Vermont, 33 Colchester Ave., Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Kim S, Hsiao YH, Chen Y, Mao J, Chen Y. FireFly: An Insect-Scale Aerial Robot Powered by Electroluminescent Soft Artificial Muscles. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3179486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suhan Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yi-Hsuan Hsiao
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - YuFan Chen
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jie Mao
- State Key Laboratory of High-efficiency Utilization of Coal and Green Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
| | - YuFeng Chen
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA
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Abstract
Autonomous robots are expected to perform a wide range of sophisticated tasks in complex, unknown environments. However, available onboard computing capabilities and algorithms represent a considerable obstacle to reaching higher levels of autonomy, especially as robots get smaller and the end of Moore's law approaches. Here, we argue that inspiration from insect intelligence is a promising alternative to classic methods in robotics for the artificial intelligence (AI) needed for the autonomy of small, mobile robots. The advantage of insect intelligence stems from its resource efficiency (or parsimony) especially in terms of power and mass. First, we discuss the main aspects of insect intelligence underlying this parsimony: embodiment, sensory-motor coordination, and swarming. Then, we take stock of where insect-inspired AI stands as an alternative to other approaches to important robotic tasks such as navigation and identify open challenges on the road to its more widespread adoption. Last, we reflect on the types of processors that are suitable for implementing insect-inspired AI, from more traditional ones such as microcontrollers and field-programmable gate arrays to unconventional neuromorphic processors. We argue that even for neuromorphic processors, one should not simply apply existing AI algorithms but exploit insights from natural insect intelligence to get maximally efficient AI for robot autonomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C H E de Croon
- Micro Air Vehicle Laboratory, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, TU Delft, Delft, Netherlands
| | - J J G Dupeyroux
- Micro Air Vehicle Laboratory, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, TU Delft, Delft, Netherlands
| | - S B Fuller
- Autonomous Insect Robotics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - J A R Marshall
- Opteran Technologies, Sheffield, UK
- Complex Systems Modeling Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Water Surface and Ground Control of a Small Cross-Domain Robot Based on Fast Line-of-Sight Algorithm and Adaptive Sliding Mode Integral Barrier Control. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12125935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper focuses on the control method of small cross-domain robots (CDR) on the water surface and the ground. The maximum size of the robot is 85 cm and the weight of the robot is 6.5 kg. To solve the problem that CDRs cannot handle the lateral velocity, which leads to error in tracking the desired trajectory, a fast line of sight (FLOS) algorithm is proposed. In this method, an exponential term is introduced to plan the yaw angle, and a fast-extended state observer (FESO) is designed to observe the side slip angle without small angle assumption. The performances and working environments of CDRs are different on the ground and the water surface. Therefore, to avoid the driver saturation and putting risk, an adaptive sliding mode integral barrier control (ASMIBC) is proposed to constrain the robot state. This control method solves the constraint failure of the traditional integral barrier control (IBC) when the desired state is a constant. The gain of the sliding mode is adaptively adjusted by the error between the limit state and the actual state. In addition, the adaptive rate is designed for uncertain time-varying lumped disturbances, such as water resistance, currents and wind. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control method.
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Timm ML, Jafari Kang S, Rothstein JP, Masoud H. A remotely controlled Marangoni surfer. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2021; 16:066014. [PMID: 34500437 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac253c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by creatures that have naturally mastered locomotion on the air-water interface, we developed and built a self-powered, remotely controlled surfing robot capable of traversing this boundary by harnessing surface tension modification for both propulsion and steering through a controlled release of isopropyl alcohol. In this process, we devised and implemented novel release valve and steering mechanisms culminating in a surfer with distinct capabilities. Our robot measures about 110 mm in length and can travel as fast as 0.8 body length per second. Interestingly, we found that the linear speed of the robot follows a 1/3 power law with the release rate of the propellant. Additional maneuverability tests also revealed that the robot is able to withstand 20 mm s-2in centripetal acceleration while turning. Here, we thoroughly discuss the design, development, performance, overall capabilities, and ultimate limitations of our robotic surfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchel L Timm
- Department of Mechanical Engineering-Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, United States of America
| | - Saeed Jafari Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering-Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, United States of America
| | - Jonathan P Rothstein
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - Hassan Masoud
- Department of Mechanical Engineering-Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, United States of America
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Nabawy MRA, Marcinkeviciute R. Scalability of resonant motor-driven flapping wing propulsion systems. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210452. [PMID: 34567586 PMCID: PMC8456139 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This work aims to develop an integrated conceptual design process to assess the scalability and performance of propulsion systems of resonant motor-driven flapping wing vehicles. The developed process allows designers to explore the interaction between electrical, mechanical and aerodynamic domains in a single transparent design environment. Wings are modelled based on a quasi-steady treatment that evaluates aerodynamics from geometry and kinematic information. System mechanics is modelled as a damped second-order dynamic system operating at resonance with nonlinear aerodynamic damping. Motors are modelled using standard equations that relate operational parameters and AC voltage input. Design scaling laws are developed using available data based on current levels of technology. The design method provides insights into the effects of changing core design variables such as the actuator size, actuator mass fraction and pitching kinematics on the overall design solution. It is shown that system efficiency achieves peak values of 30-36% at motor masses of 0.5-1 g when a constant angle of attack kinematics is employed. While sinusoidal angle of attack kinematics demands more aerodynamic and electric powers compared with the constant angle of attack case, sinusoidal angle of attack kinematics can lead to a maximum difference of around 15% in peak system efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa R. A. Nabawy
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK
- Aerospace Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Ruta Marcinkeviciute
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK
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