Relevance of the flavin binding to the stability and folding of engineered cholesterol oxidase containing noncovalently bound FAD

Fixing Flavins: Hijacking a Flavin Transferase for Equipping Flavoproteins with a Covalent Flavin Cofactor

Most flavin-dependent enzymes contain a dissociable flavin cofactor. We present a new approach for installing in vivo a covalent bond between a flavin cofactor and its host protein. By using a flavin transferase and carving a flavinylation motif in target proteins, we demonstrate that "dissociable" flavoproteins can be turned into covalent flavoproteins. Specifically, four different flavin mononucleotide-containing proteins were engineered to undergo covalent flavinylation: a light-oxygen-voltage domain protein, a mini singlet oxygen generator, a nitroreductase, and an old yellow enzyme-type ene reductase. Optimizing the flavinylation motif and expression conditions led to the covalent flavinylation of all four flavoproteins. The engineered covalent flavoproteins retained function and often exhibited improved performance, such as higher thermostability or catalytic performance. The crystal structures of the designed covalent flavoproteins confirmed the designed threonyl-phosphate linkage. The targeted flavoproteins differ in fold and function, indicating that this method of introducing a covalent flavin-protein bond is a powerful new method to create flavoproteins that cannot lose their cofactor, boosting their performance.

Thermodynamic Evaluation of the Interactions between Anticancer Pt(II) Complexes and Model Proteins

In this work, we have analysed the binding of the Pt(II) complexes ([PtCl(4′-phenyl-2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine)](CF₃SO₃) (1), [PtI(4′-phenyl-2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine)](CF₃SO₃) (2) and [PtCl(1,3-di(2-pyridyl)benzene) (3)] with selected model proteins (hen egg-white lysozyme, HEWL, and ribonuclease A, RNase A). Platinum coordination compounds are intensively studied to develop improved anticancer agents. In this regard, a critical issue is the possible role of Pt-protein interactions in their mechanisms of action. Multiple techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and UV-Vis absorbance titrations were used to enlighten the details of the binding to the different biosubstrates. On the one hand, it may be concluded that the affinity of 3 for the proteins is low. On the other hand, 1 and 2 strongly bind them, but with major binding mode differences when switching from HEWL to RNase A. Both 1 and 2 bind to HEWL with a non-specific (DSC) and non-covalent (ESI-MS) binding mode, dominated by a 1:1 binding stoichiometry (UV-Vis). ESI-MS data indicate a protein-driven chloride loss that does not convert into a covalent bond, likely due to the unfavourable complexes’ geometries and steric hindrance. This result, together with the significant changes of the absorbance profiles of the complex upon interaction, suggest an electrostatic binding mode supported by some stacking interaction of the aromatic ligand. Very differently, in the case of RNase A, slow formation of covalent adducts occurs (DSC, ESI-MS). The reactivity is higher for the iodo-compound 2, in agreement with iodine lability higher than chlorine.

Cofactors as Molecular Fossils To Trace the Origin and Evolution of Proteins

Due to their early origin and extreme conservation, cofactors are valuable molecular fossils for tracing the origin and evolution of proteins. First, as the order of protein folds binding with cofactors roughly coincides with protein-fold chronology, cofactors are considered to have facilitated the origin of primitive proteins by selecting them from pools of random amino acid sequences. Second, in the subsequent evolution of proteins, cofactors still played an important role. More interestingly, as metallic cofactors evolved with geochemical variations, some geochemical events left imprints in the chronology of protein architecture; this provides further evidence supporting the coevolution of biochemistry and geochemistry. In this paper, we attempt to review the molecular fossils used in tracing the origin and evolution of proteins, with a special focus on cofactors.

Why the Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) Cofactor Needs To Be Covalently Linked to Complex II of the Electron-Transport Chain for the Conversion of FADH2 into FAD

A covalently bound flavin cofactor is predominant in the succinate‐ubiquinone oxidoreductase (SQR; Complex II), an essential component of aerobic electron transport, and in the menaquinol‐fumarate oxidoreductase (QFR), the anaerobic counterpart, although it is only present in approximately 10 % of the known flavoenzymes. This work investigates the role of this 8α‐N3‐histidyl linkage between the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor and the respiratory Complex II. After parameterization with DFT calculations, classical molecular‐dynamics simulations and quantum‐mechanics calculations for Complex II:FAD and Complex II:FADH₂, with and without the covalent bond, were performed. It was observed that the covalent bond is essential for the active‐center arrangement of the FADH₂/FAD cofactor. Removal of this bond causes a displacement of the isoalloxazine group, which influences interactions with the protein, flavin solvation, and possible proton‐transfer pathways. Specifically, for the noncovalently bound FADH₂ cofactor, the N1 atom moves away from the His‐A365 and His‐A254 residues and the N5 atom moves away from the glutamine‐62A residue. Both of the histidine and glutamine residues interact with a chain of water molecules that cross the enzyme, which is most likely involved in proton transfer. Breaking this chain of water molecules could thereby compromise proton transfer across the two active sites of Complex II.

Topography of human cytochrome b5/cytochrome b5 reductase interacting domain and redox alterations upon complex formation

Cytochrome b₅ is the main electron acceptor of cytochrome b₅ reductase. The interacting domain between both human proteins has been unidentified up to date and very little is known about its redox properties modulation upon complex formation. In this article, we characterized the protein/protein interacting interface by solution NMR and molecular docking. In addition, upon complex formation, we measured an increase of cytochrome b₅ reductase flavin autofluorescence that was dependent upon the presence of cytochrome b_5. Data analysis of these results allowed us to calculate a dissociation constant value between proteins of 0.5±0.1μM and a 1:1 stoichiometry for the complex formation. In addition, a 30mV negative shift of cytochrome b₅ reductase redox potential in presence of cytochrome b₅ was also measured. These experiments suggest that the FAD group of cytochrome b₅ reductase increase its solvent exposition upon complex formation promoting an efficient electron transfer between the proteins.

NADP⁺ binding effects tryptophan accessibility, folding and stability of recombinant B. malayi G6PD

Brugia malayi Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase apoenzyme (BmG6PD) was expressed and purified by affinity chromatography to study the differences in kinetic properties of enzyme and the effect of the cofactor NADP(+) binding on enzyme stability. The presence of cofactor NADP(+) influenced the tertiary structure of enzyme due to significant differences in the tryptophan microenvironment. However, NADP(+) binding have no effect on secondary structure of the enzyme. Quenching with acrylamide indicated that two or more tryptophan residues became accessible upon cofactor binding. Unfolding and cross linking study of BmG6PD showed that NADP(+) stabilized the protein in presence of high concentration of urea/GdmCl. A homology model of BmG6PD constructed using human G6PD (PDB id: 2BH9) as a template indicated 34% α-helix, 19% β-sheet and 47% random coil conformations in the predicted model of the enzyme. In the predicted model binding of NADP(+) to BmG6PD was less tight with the structural sites (-10.96 kJ/mol binding score) as compared with the coenzyme site (-15.47 kJ/mol binding score).

ATP selection in a random peptide library consisting of prebiotic amino acids

Based upon many theoretical findings on protein evolution, we proposed a ligand-selection model for the origin of proteins, in which the most ancient proteins originated from ATP selection in a pool of random peptides. To test this ligand-selection model, we constructed a random peptide library consisting of 15 types of prebiotic amino acids and then used cDNA display to perform six rounds of in vitro selection with ATP. By means of next-generation sequencing, the most prevalent sequence was defined. Biochemical and biophysical characterization of the selected peptide showed that it was stable and foldable and had ATP-hydrolysis activity as well.

Stalled flavodoxin binds its cofactor while fully exposed outside the ribosome

Correct folding of proteins is crucial for cellular homeostasis. More than thirty percent of proteins contain one or more cofactors, but the impact of these cofactors on co-translational folding remains largely unknown. Here, we address the binding of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) to nascent flavodoxin, by generating ribosome-arrested nascent chains that expose either the entire protein or C-terminally truncated segments thereof. The native α/β parallel fold of flavodoxin is among the most ancestral and widely distributed folds in nature and exploring its co-translational folding is thus highly relevant. In Escherichia coli (strain BL21(DE3) Δtig::kan) FMN turns out to be limiting for saturation of this flavoprotein on time-scales vastly exceeding those of flavodoxin synthesis. Because the ribosome affects protein folding, apoflavodoxin cannot bind FMN during its translation. As a result, binding of cofactor to released protein is the last step in production of this flavoprotein in the cell. We show that once apoflavodoxin is entirely synthesized and exposed outside the ribosome to which it is stalled by an artificial linker containing the SecM sequence, the protein is natively folded and capable of binding FMN.

Cholesterol oxidase: structure and function

Cholesterol oxidase is a bacterial-specific flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation and isomerisation of steroids containing a 3beta hydroxyl group and a double bond at the Delta5-6 of the steroid ring system. The enzyme is a member of a large family of flavin-specific oxidoreductases and is found in two different forms: one where the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor is covalently linked to the protein and one where the cofactor is non-covalently bound to the protein. These two enzyme forms have been extensively studied in order to gain insight into the mechanism of flavin-mediated oxidation and the relationship between protein structure and enzyme redox potential. More recently the enzyme has been found to play an important role in bacterial pathogenesis and hence further studies are focused on its potential use for future development of novel antibacterial therapeutic agents. In this review the biochemical, structural, kinetic and mechanistic features of the enzyme are discussed.

Cholesterol oxidase: biochemistry and structural features

Cholesterol oxidases are bifunctional flavoenzymes that catalyze the oxidation of steroid substrates which have a hydroxyl group at the 3beta position of the steroid ring system. The enzyme is found, in a wide range of bacterial species, in two forms: one with the FAD cofactor bound noncovalently to the enzyme; and one with the cofactor linked covalently to the protein. Here we discuss, compare and contrast the salient biochemical properties of the two forms of the enzyme. Specifically, the structural features are discussed that affect the redox potentials of the flavin cofactor, the chemical mechanism of substrate dehydrogenation by active-center amino acid residues, the kinetic parameters of both types of enzymes and the reactivity of reduced enzymes with molecular dioxygen. The presence of a molecular tunnel that is proposed to serve in the access of dioxygen to the active site and mechanisms of its control by a 'gate' formed by amino acid residues are highlighted.

Contribution of flavin covalent linkage with histidine 99 to the reaction catalyzed by choline oxidase

The FAD-dependent choline oxidase has a flavin cofactor covalently attached to the protein via histidine 99 through an 8alpha-N(3)-histidyl linkage. The enzyme catalyzes the four-electron oxidation of choline to glycine betaine, forming betaine aldehyde as an enzyme-bound intermediate. The variant form of choline oxidase in which the histidine residue has been replaced with asparagine was used to investigate the contribution of the 8alpha-N(3)-histidyl linkage of FAD to the protein toward the reaction catalyzed by the enzyme. Decreases of 10-fold and 30-fold in the k(cat)/K(m) and k(cat) values were observed as compared with wild-type choline oxidase at pH 10 and 25 degrees C, with no significant effect on k(cat)/K(O) using choline as substrate. Both the k(cat)/K(m) and k(cat) values increased with increasing pH to limiting values at high pH consistent with the participation of an unprotonated group in the reductive half-reaction and the overall turnover of the enzyme. The pH independence of both (D)(k(cat)/K(m)) and (D)k(cat), with average values of 9.2 +/- 3.3 and 7.4 +/- 0.5, respectively, is consistent with absence of external forward and reverse commitments to catalysis, and the chemical step of CH bond cleavage being rate-limiting for both the reductive half-reaction and the overall enzyme turnover. The temperature dependence of the (D)k(red) values suggests disruption of the preorganization in the asparagine variant enzyme. Altogether, the data presented in this study are consistent with the FAD-histidyl covalent linkage being important for the optimal positioning of the hydride ion donor and acceptor in the tunneling reaction catalyzed by choline oxidase.

Functional roles of the 6-S-cysteinyl, 8alpha-N1-histidyl FAD in glucooligosaccharide oxidase from Acremonium strictum

The crystal structure of glucooligosaccharide oxidase from Acremonium strictum was demonstrated to contain a bicovalent flavinylation, with the 6- and 8alpha-positions of the flavin isoalloxazine ring cross-linked to Cys(130) and His(70), respectively. The H70A and C130A single mutants still retain the covalent FAD, indicating that flavinylation at these two residues is independent. Both mutants exhibit a decreased midpoint potential of approximately +69 and +61 mV, respectively, compared with +126 mV for the wild type, and possess lower activities with k(cat) values reduced to approximately 2 and 5%, and the flavin reduction rate reduced to 0.6 and 14%. This indicates that both covalent linkages increase the flavin redox potential and alter the redox properties to promote catalytic efficiency. In addition, the isolated H70A/C130A double mutant does not contain FAD, and addition of exogenous FAD was not able to restore any detectable activity. This demonstrates that the covalent attachment is essential for the binding of the oxidized cofactor. Furthermore, the crystal structure of the C130A mutant displays conformational changes in several cofactor and substrate-interacting residues and hence provides direct evidence for novel functions of flavinylation in assistance of cofactor and substrate binding. Finally, the wild-type enzyme is more heat and guanidine HCl-resistant than the mutants. Therefore, the bicovalent flavin linkage not only tunes the redox potential and contributes to cofactor and substrate binding but also increases structural stability.