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Young MW, McKamy AJ, Dickinson E, Yarbro J, Ragupathi A, Guru N, Avey-Arroyo JA, Butcher MT, Granatosky MC. Three toes and three modes: Dynamics of terrestrial, suspensory, and vertical locomotion in brown-throated three-toed sloths (Bradypodidae, Xenarthra). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 339:383-397. [PMID: 36747379 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Living sloths exhibit numerous anatomical specializations towards inverted quadrupedalism, however, previous studies have noted a more varied locomotor repertoire than previously anticipated. In this study, we present spatiotemporal gait characteristics and triaxial kinetic data from the brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) across three locomotor modes: terrestrial quadrupedal "crawling", suspensory walking, and vertical climbing. Compared to quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking, B. variegatus adopted longer contact times and stride durations, larger duty factors, and greater speed during vertical climbing. Net fore-aft impulses were significantly greater during vertical climbing in both limb pairs than in quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking. Functionally, during quadrupedal crawling and vertical climbing, both limb pairs served propulsive roles, while differentiation between a propulsive forelimb and braking hindlimb was observed during suspension. Net tangential forces differentiated vertical climbing kinetics from the other modes of locomotion, with the introduction of bidirectional pulling and pushing forces in the forelimb and hindlimb, respectively. The net mediolateral impulses were similar in vertical climbing and quadrupedal crawling as both limb pairs directed forces in one direction, whereas during suspensory walking, the laterally dominant forelimb was opposed by the medially dominant hindlimb. In total, this study provides novel data on the diverse locomotor dynamics in a slow-moving arboreal tetrapod and posits new testable hypotheses about the neuroplasticity and ease of transitioning between locomotor behaviors. The strikingly similar kinetic profiles of quadrupedal crawling and suspensory walking compared to vertical climbing suggest shared neuromuscular and mechanical demands between these mirrored locomotor modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody W Young
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Andrew J McKamy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Johnathan Yarbro
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Jonesboro, Arkansas, USA
| | - Ashwin Ragupathi
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Navjot Guru
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | | | - Michael T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA.,Center for Biomedical Innovation, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
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Kaup M, Trull S, Hom EFY. On the move: sloths and their epibionts as model mobile ecosystems. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2638-2660. [PMID: 34309191 PMCID: PMC9290738 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sloths are unusual mobile ecosystems, containing a high diversity of epibionts living and growing in their fur as they climb slowly through the canopies of tropical forests. These epibionts include poorly studied algae, arthropods, fungi, and bacteria, making sloths likely reservoirs of unexplored biodiversity. This review aims to identify gaps and eliminate misconceptions in our knowledge of sloths and their epibionts, and to identify key questions to stimulate future research into the functions and roles of sloths within a broader ecological and evolutionary context. This review also seeks to position the sloth fur ecosystem as a model for addressing fundamental questions in metacommunity and movement ecology. The conceptual and evidence-based foundation of this review aims to serve as a guide for future hypothesis-driven research into sloths, their microbiota, sloth health and conservation, and the coevolution of symbioses in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Kaup
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677-1848, U.S.A
| | - Sam Trull
- The Sloth Institute, Tulemar Gardens, Provincia de Puntarenas, Manuel Antonio, 60601, Costa Rica
| | - Erik F Y Hom
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677-1848, U.S.A
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Owokotomo AI, Ajayi OO, Alabi OO, Chukwuka AV. Watershed land use, surface water vulnerability and public health risks of two urban rivers, Ado-Ekiti, South-West Nigeria. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-020-03572-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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Cliffe RN, Robinson CV, Whittaker BA, Kennedy SJ, Avey‐Arroyo JA, Consuegra S, Wilson RP. Genetic divergence and evidence of human-mediated translocation of two-fingered sloths (C holoepus hoffmanni) in Costa Rica. Evol Appl 2020; 13:2439-2448. [PMID: 33005232 PMCID: PMC7513709 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Sloths are notoriously slow and consequently have limited dispersal ability, which makes them particularly vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmentation and degradation. Sloths in Costa Rica are considered of conservation concern due to habitat loss, livestock production and increasing urbanization. Reintroductions from rescue centres are commonplace across the country, yet their genetic diversity and population structure are unknown, and there is currently little consideration of the genetic background prior to intervention or releases. We used microsatellite analysis to undertake the first exploratory investigation into sloth population genetics in Costa Rica. Using data from 98 two-fingered sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni) from four different geographic regions, we determined the presence of four potential genetic groups, three of them with minimal population structuring despite the limited dispersal ability and presence of physical barriers. Sloths from the North appear to represent a highly distinct population that we propose may require management as a discrete unit for conservation. We stress the need for additional analyses to better understand the genetic structure and diversity of North andWest regions and suggest that rescue facilities in Costa Rica should consider the genetic background of rehabilitated sloths when planning future reintroductions. Our results also highlight the threat posed by physical isolation due to widespread urbanization and agriculture expansion for a species with a weak dispersal ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca N. Cliffe
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- The Sloth Sanctuary of Costa RicaLimonCosta Rica
- The Sloth Conservation FoundationHayfieldUK
| | - Chloe V. Robinson
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- Present address:
Department of Integrative Biology and Centre for Biodiversity GenomicsUniversity of Guelph50 Stone Road EGuelphONN1G 2W1Canada
| | - Benjamin A. Whittaker
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- The Sloth Sanctuary of Costa RicaLimonCosta Rica
- Present address:
Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of Guelph50 Stone Road EGuelphONN1G 2W1Canada
| | | | | | | | - Rory P. Wilson
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
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Luke SH, Slade EM, Gray CL, Annammala KV, Drewer J, Williamson J, Agama AL, Ationg M, Mitchell SL, Vairappan CS, Struebig MJ. Riparian buffers in tropical agriculture: Scientific support, effectiveness and directions for policy. J Appl Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah H. Luke
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE)School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of Kent Canterbury UK
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Eleanor M. Slade
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Oxford Oxford UK
- Lancaster Environment CentreUniversity of Lancaster Lancaster UK
| | | | - Kogila V. Annammala
- Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA)Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Malaysia
| | - Julia Drewer
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) Edinburgh UK
| | - Joseph Williamson
- School of Biological and Chemical SciencesQueen Mary University of London London UK
| | - Agnes L. Agama
- South East Asia Rainforest Research Partnership (SEARRP) Lahad Datu Malaysia
| | - Miklin Ationg
- Department of Irrigation and DrainageWater Resources Management Section Kota Kinabalu Malaysia
| | - Simon L. Mitchell
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE)School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of Kent Canterbury UK
| | - Charles S. Vairappan
- Institute for Tropical Biology and ConservationUniversiti Malaysia Sabah Kota Kinabalu Malaysia
| | - Matthew J. Struebig
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE)School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of Kent Canterbury UK
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