Ethylene production in relation to nitrogen metabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Photoautotrophic production of renewable ethylene by engineered cyanobacteria: Steering the cell metabolism towards biotechnological use

Ethylene is a volatile hydrocarbon with a massive global market in the plastic industry. The ethylene now used for commercial applications is produced exclusively from nonrenewable petroleum sources, while competitive biotechnological production systems do not yet exist. This review focuses on the currently developed photoautotrophic bioproduction strategies that enable direct solar-driven conversion of CO₂ into ethylene, based on the use of genetically engineered photosynthetic cyanobacteria expressing heterologous ethylene forming enzyme (EFE) from Pseudomonas syringae. The emphasis is on the different engineering strategies to express EFE and to direct the cellular carbon flux towards the primary metabolite 2-oxoglutarate, highlighting associated metabolic constraints, and technical considerations on cultivation strategies and conditional parameters. While the research field has progressed towards more robust strains with better production profiles, and deeper understanding of the associated metabolic limitations, it is clear that there is room for significant improvement to reach industrial relevance. At the same time, existing information and the development of synthetic biology tools for engineering cyanobacteria open new possibilities for improving the prospects for the sustainable production of renewable ethylene.

Structures and Mechanisms of the Non-Heme Fe(II)- and 2-Oxoglutarate-Dependent Ethylene-Forming Enzyme: Substrate Binding Creates a Twist

The ethylene-forming enzyme (EFE) from Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola PK2 is a member of the mononuclear nonheme Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenase superfamily. EFE converts 2OG into ethylene plus three CO2 molecules while also catalyzing the C5 hydroxylation of l-arginine (l-Arg) driven by the oxidative decarboxylation of 2OG to form succinate and CO2. Here we report 11 X-ray crystal structures of EFE that provide insight into the mechanisms of these two reactions. Binding of 2OG in the absence of l-Arg resulted in predominantly monodentate metal coordination, distinct from the typical bidentate metal-binding species observed in other family members. Subsequent addition of l-Arg resulted in compression of the active site, a conformational change of the carboxylate side chain metal ligand to allow for hydrogen bonding with the substrate, and creation of a twisted peptide bond involving this carboxylate and the following tyrosine residue. A reconfiguration of 2OG achieves bidentate metal coordination. The dioxygen binding site is located on the metal face opposite to that facing l-Arg, thus requiring reorientation of the generated ferryl species to catalyze l-Arg hydroxylation. Notably, a phenylalanyl side chain pointing toward the metal may hinder such a ferryl flip and promote ethylene formation. Extensive site-directed mutagenesis studies supported the importance of this phenylalanine and confirmed the essential residues used for substrate binding and catalysis. The structural and functional characterization described here suggests that conversion of 2OG to ethylene, atypical among Fe(II)/2OG oxygenases, is facilitated by the binding of l-Arg which leads to an altered positioning of the carboxylate metal ligand, a resulting twisted peptide bond, and the off-line geometry for dioxygen coordination.

Biochemical and Spectroscopic Characterization of the Non-Heme Fe(II)- and 2-Oxoglutarate-Dependent Ethylene-Forming Enzyme from Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola PK2

The ethylene-forming enzyme (EFE) from Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola PK2 is a member of the mononuclear non-heme Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenase superfamily. This enzyme is reported to simultaneously catalyze the conversion of 2OG into ethylene and three CO₂ molecules and the Cδ hydroxylation of l-arginine (l-Arg) while oxidatively decarboxylating 2OG to form succinate and carbon dioxide. A new plasmid construct for expression in recombinant Escherichia coli cells allowed for the purification of large amounts of EFE with activity greater than that previously recorded. A variety of assays were used to quantify and confirm the identity of the proposed products, including the first experimental demonstration of l-Δ¹-pyrroline-5-carboxylate and guanidine derived from 5-hydroxyarginine. Selected l-Arg derivatives could induce ethylene formation without undergoing hydroxylation, demonstrating that ethylene production and l-Arg hydroxylation activities are not linked. Similarly, EFE utilizes the alternative α-keto acid 2-oxoadipate as a cosubstrate (forming glutaric acid) during the hydroxylation of l-Arg, with this reaction unlinked from ethylene formation. Kinetic constants were determined for both ethylene formation and l-Arg hydroxylation reactions. Anaerobic UV-visible difference spectra were used to monitor the binding of Fe(II) and substrates to the enzyme. On the basis of our results and what is generally known about EFE and Fe(II)- and 2OG-dependent oxygenases, an updated model for the reaction mechanism is presented.