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Kanwal N, Musharraf SG. Analytical approaches for the determination of adulterated animal fats and vegetable oils in food and non-food samples. Food Chem 2024; 460:140786. [PMID: 39142208 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 08/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
Edible oils and fats are crucial components of everyday cooking and the production of food products, but their purity has been a major issue for a long time. High-quality edible oils are contaminated with low- and cheap-quality edible oils to increase profits. The adulteration of edible oils and fats also produces many health risks. Detection of main and minor components can identify adulterations using various techniques, such as GC, HPLC, TLC, FTIR, NIR, NMR, direct mass spectrometry, PCR, E-Nose, and DSC. Each detection technique has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, chromatography offers high precision but requires extensive sample preparation, while spectroscopy is rapid and non-destructive but may lack resolution. Direct mass spectrometry is faster and simpler than chromatography-based MS, eliminating complex preparation steps. DNA-based oil authentication is effective but hindered by laborious extraction processes. E-Nose only distinguishes odours, and DSC directly studies lipid thermal properties without derivatization or solvents. Mass spectrometry-based techniques, particularly GC-MS is found to be highly effective for detecting adulteration of oils and fats in food and non-food samples. This review summarizes the benefits and drawbacks of these analytical approaches and their use in conjunction with chemometric tools to detect the adulteration of animal fats and vegetable oils. This combination provides a powerful technique with enormous chemotaxonomic potential that includes the detection of adulterations, quality assurance, assessment of geographical origin, assessment of the process, and classification of the product in complex matrices from food and non-food samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nayab Kanwal
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Syed Ghulam Musharraf
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan; Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan..
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2
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Tian H, Wu D, Chen B, Yuan H, Yu H, Lou X, Chen C. Rapid identification and quantification of vegetable oil adulteration in raw milk using a flash gas chromatography electronic nose combined with machine learning. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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3
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Hebling E Tavares JP, da Silva Medeiros ML, Barbin DF. Near-infrared techniques for fraud detection in dairy products: A review. J Food Sci 2022; 87:1943-1960. [PMID: 35362099 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The dairy products sector is an important part of the food industry, and their consumption is expected to grow in the next 10 years. Therefore, the authentication of these products in a faster and precise way is required for the sake of public health. This review proposes the use of near-infrared techniques for the detection of food fraud in dairy products as they are faster, nondestructive, environmentally friendly, do not require sample preparation, and allow multiconstituent analysis. First, we have described frequent forms of food fraud in dairy products and the application of traditional techniques for their detection, highlighting gaps and counterproductive characteristics for the actual global food chain, as longer sample preparation time and use of reagents. Then, the application of near-infrared spectroscopy and hyperspectral imaging for the detection of food fraud mainly in cheese, butter, and yogurt are described. As these techniques depend on model development, the coverage of different dairy products by the literature will promote the identification of food fraud in a faster and reliable way.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Douglas Fernandes Barbin
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
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4
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Azizan NI, Mokhtar NFK, Arshad S, Sharin SN, Mohamad N, Mustafa S, Hashim AM. Detection of Lard Adulteration in Wheat Biscuits Using Chemometrics-Assisted GCMS and Random Forest. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-021-02046-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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5
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Sudhakar A, Chakraborty SK, Mahanti NK, Varghese C. Advanced techniques in edible oil authentication: A systematic review and critical analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:873-901. [PMID: 34347552 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1956424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Adulteration of edible substances is a potent contemporary food safety issue. Perhaps the overt concern derives from the fact that adulterants pose serious ill effects on human health. Edible oils are one of the most adulterated food products. Perpetrators are adopting ways and means that effectively masks the presence of the adulterants from human organoleptic limits and traditional oil adulteration detection techniques. This review embodies a detailed account of chemical, biosensors, chromatography, spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, non-thermal plasma, dielectric spectroscopy research carried out in the area of falsification assessment of edible oils for the past three decades and a collection of patented oil adulteration detection techniques. The detection techniques reviewed have some advantages and certain limitations, chemical tests are simple; biosensors and nuclear magnetic resonance are rapid but have a low sensitivity; chromatography and spectroscopy are highly accurate with a deterring price tag; dielectric spectroscopy is rapid can be portable and has on-line compatibility; however, the results are susceptible to variation of electric current frequency and intrinsic factors (moisture, temperature, structural composition). This review paper can be useful for scientists or for knowledge seekers eager to be abreast with edible oil adulteration detection techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Sudhakar
- Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, India
| | - Subir Kumar Chakraborty
- Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, India
| | - Naveen Kumar Mahanti
- Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, India
| | - Cinu Varghese
- Rural Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
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6
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Kazazić S, Gajdoš‐Kljusurić J, Radeljević B, Plavljanić D, Špoljarić J, Ljubić T, Bilić B, Mikulec N. Comparison of GC and NIR spectra as a rapid tool for food fraud detection: Case of butter adulteration with different fat types. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Snježana Kazazić
- Division of Physical Chemistry Ruđer Bošković Institute Zagreb Croatia
| | - Jasenka Gajdoš‐Kljusurić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, Department of Process Engineering University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
| | - Biljana Radeljević
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Science University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
| | - Dijana Plavljanić
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Science University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
| | - Jasminka Špoljarić
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Science University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
| | - Tihana Ljubić
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Science University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
| | - Branka Bilić
- Division of Physical Chemistry Ruđer Bošković Institute Zagreb Croatia
| | - Nataša Mikulec
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Science University of Zagreb Zagreb Croatia
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7
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Development of an ultrasonic and heat-assisted liquid–liquid extraction method combined with deep eutectic solvent-based dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for the extraction of some phytosterols from cow milk butter samples. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-021-02206-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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8
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Temizkan R, Can A, Dogan MA, Mortas M, Ayvaz H. Rapid detection of milk fat adulteration in yoghurts using near and mid-infrared spectroscopy. Int Dairy J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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9
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Uncu AO, Uncu AT. A barcode-DNA analysis method for the identification of plant oil adulteration in milk and dairy products. Food Chem 2020; 326:126986. [PMID: 32407998 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present work, a barcode-DNA analysis method is described for the detection of plant oil adulteration in milk and dairy products. The method relies on the fact that plant DNA should not be present in readily detectable amounts in a dairy product unless it contains undeclared plant material. Thus, a universal plant barcode is chosen as the target to be amplified from dairy samples. Accordingly, barcode PCR-CE (PCR-capillary electrophoresis) assays are described, which do not require preliminary information on the species source of the adulterant oil type. Two PCR-CE assays, one operating on the plastid trnL (UAA) intron and the other targeting its inner P6 loop in nested format, were shown to detect corn, soybean, rapeseed and sunflower oils in clarified butter, milk and yogurt. Both barcodes are robustly amplified with extremely conserved primers. While the intron provides the species discrimination ability, the P6 loop provides superior detection sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ozgur Uncu
- Necmettin Erbakan University, Department of Biotechnology, Meram, Konya 42090, Turkey.
| | - Ali Tevfik Uncu
- Necmettin Erbakan University, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetics, Meram, Konya 42090, Turkey.
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Danezis GP, Tsiplakou E, Pappa EC, Pappas AC, Mavrommatis A, Sotirakoglou K, Georgiou CA, Zervas G. Fatty acid profile and physicochemical properties of Greek protected designation of origin cheeses, implications for authentication. Eur Food Res Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-020-03527-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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11
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Medina S, Pereira JA, Silva P, Perestrelo R, Câmara JS. Food fingerprints - A valuable tool to monitor food authenticity and safety. Food Chem 2018; 278:144-162. [PMID: 30583355 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.11.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, food frauds and adulterations have increased significantly. This practice is motivated by fast economical gains and has an enormous impact on public health, representing an important issue in food science. In this context, this review has been designed to be a useful guide of potential biomarkers of food authenticity and safety. In terms of food authenticity, we focused our attention on biomarkers reported to specify different botanical or geographical origins, genetic diversity or production systems, while at the food safety level, molecular evidences of food adulteration or spoilage will be highlighted. This report is the first to combine results from recent studies in a format that allows a ready overview of metabolites (<1200 Da) and potentially molecular routes to monitor food authentication and safety. This review has therefore the potential to unveil important aspects in food adulteration and safety, contributing to improve the current regulatory frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Medina
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal.
| | - Jorge A Pereira
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Pedro Silva
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Rosa Perestrelo
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal.
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12
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Guyader S, Thomas F, Portaluri V, Jamin E, Akoka S, Silvestre V, Remaud G. Authentication of edible fats and oils by non-targeted 13 C INEPT NMR spectroscopy. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Szabóová Ž, Blaško J, Galbavá P, Nižnanský L, Górová R, Filipiak W, Musil K, Čabala R, Gabrišová L, Peciar M, Kubinec R. Analysis of triglycerides in butter, plant oils, and adulterated butter with LPGC-MS. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-018-2228-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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14
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Sadeghi N, Rostami A, Taghavianpour A, Jafari-Semnani S, Torabi P, Pourjabar Z, Hajimahmoodi M. Study on sterol fraction of commercial brands of milk, yoghurt and butter sold in Iranian market and chemometric data analysis. INT J DAIRY TECHNOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1471-0307.12511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naficeh Sadeghi
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Akram Rostami
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
- Food and Drug Administration; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Alale Taghavianpour
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Sourena Jafari-Semnani
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Parisa Torabi
- Food and Drug Administration; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Zeinab Pourjabar
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
| | - Mannan Hajimahmoodi
- Drug and Food Control Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
- Persian Medicine and Pharmacy Research Center; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
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15
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Yazgan Karacaglar NN, Bulat T, Boyaci IH, Topcu A. Raman spectroscopy coupled with chemometric methods for the discrimination of foreign fats and oils in cream and yogurt. J Food Drug Anal 2018; 27:101-110. [PMID: 30648563 PMCID: PMC9298642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The adulteration of milk fat in dairy products with cheaper non-milk based fats or oils is frequently encountered in the dairy industry. In this study, Raman spectroscopy with chemometric was used for the discrimination of foreign fats and oils in milk cream and yogurt. Firstly, binary mixtures of cream and oils (corn and sunflower oil), and vegetable fat blends which are potentially or currently used by the dairy industry were prepared. All fat or oil samples and their binary mixtures were examined by using Raman spectroscopy. Then, fat content of skim milk was adjusted to 3% (w/w) by the milk fat, external oils or fats, and binary mixtures, and was used in yogurt production. The lipid fraction of yogurt was extracted and characterized by Raman spectroscopy. The spectral data were then pre-processed and principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. Raman spectral data showed successful discrimination for about the source of the fats or oils. Temperature effect was also studied at six different temperatures (25, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 °C) in order to obtain the best spectral information. Raman spectra collected at higher temperatures were more intense. Obtained results showed that the performance of Raman spectroscopy with PCA was very promising and can be expected to provide a simple and quick way for the discrimination of foreign fats and oils in both milk cream and yogurt. Fermentation and yogurt processing affected clustering of fat samples by PCA, probably depending on some lipolysis or production of new products that can affect the Raman scattering. However, those changes did not affect differentiation of samples by Raman spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tugba Bulat
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ismail Hakki Boyaci
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ali Topcu
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06800, Ankara, Turkey.
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16
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Assessment of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy as a tool for analysis of butter adulteration. J Food Compost Anal 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2017.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Nascimento CF, Santos PM, Pereira-Filho ER, Rocha FR. Recent advances on determination of milk adulterants. Food Chem 2017; 221:1232-1244. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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18
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Pimentel L, Gomes A, Pintado M, Rodríguez-Alcalá LM. Isolation and Analysis of Phospholipids in Dairy Foods. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2016; 2016:9827369. [PMID: 27610267 PMCID: PMC5005530 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9827369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The lipid fraction of milk is one of the most complex matrixes in foodstuffs due to the presence of a high number of moieties with different physical and chemical properties. Glycerolipids include glycerol and two fatty acids esterified in positions sn-1 and sn-2 with higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids than in the triglyceride fraction of milk. Sphingolipids consist of a sphingoid base linked to a fatty acid across an amide bond. Their amphiphilic nature makes them suitable to be added into a variety of foods and recent investigations show that phospholipids, mainly phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin, can exert antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer activities as well as positive effects in Alzheimer's disease, stress, and memory decline. Polar lipids can be found as natural constituents in the membranes of all living organisms with soybean and eggs as the principal industrial sources, yet they have low contents in phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin. Animal products are rich sources of these compounds but since there are legal restrictions to avoid transmission of prions, milk and dairy products are gaining interest as alternative sources. This review summarizes the analysis of polar lipids in dairy products including sample preparation (extraction and fractionation/isolation) and analysis by GC or HPLC and the latest research works using ELSD, CAD, and MS detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lígia Pimentel
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina (CBQF), Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado 2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Gomes
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina (CBQF), Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado 2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuela Pintado
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina (CBQF), Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado 2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Luis Miguel Rodríguez-Alcalá
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina (CBQF), Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado 2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad (CIRENYS), Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Fábrica N° 1990, Segundo Piso, Santiago, Chile
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