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Morin DM, Richard S, Ansaribaranghar N, Newling B, Balcom BJ. A low-field ceramic magnet design for magnetic resonance. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2024; 358:107599. [PMID: 38041994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2023.107599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
We describe the design of a low-field portable magnet, based on two ceramic magnets, separated by a distance, with their magnetic poles aligned to create a large homogeneous region with a field strength of 425 gauss. Ceramic magnets are an uncommon choice compared to Neodymium Iron Boron magnets for low-field magnetic resonance but are preferable for our purposes to create a homogeneous region at lower field strength. The low cost of large ceramic magnets results in an inexpensive design with a large measurement volume. The magnets rest in a 3D-printed structure, which allows for the magnets to be moved by hand so the experimentalist has control over the field topology. To test the utility of the design, we explored an Overhauser dynamic nuclear polarization experiment with an aqueous solution of 4-Hydroxy-TEMPO. We also explored a simple flow measurement employing the ceramic magnets at a 6-degree pitch, creating a 14.6 gauss/cm constant gradient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin M Morin
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Sebastian Richard
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Naser Ansaribaranghar
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Benedict Newling
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Bruce J Balcom
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada.
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2
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Martin MN, Jordanova KV, Kos AB, Russek SE, Keenan KE, Stupic KF. Relaxation measurements of an MRI system phantom at low magnetic field strengths. MAGMA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023:10.1007/s10334-023-01086-y. [PMID: 37209233 PMCID: PMC10386925 DOI: 10.1007/s10334-023-01086-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Temperature controlled T1 and T2 relaxation times are measured on NiCl2 and MnCl2 solutions from the ISMRM/NIST system phantom at low magnetic field strengths of 6.5 mT, 64 mT and 550 mT. MATERIALS AND METHODS The T1 and T2 were measured of five samples with increasing concentrations of NiCl2 and five samples with increasing concentrations of MnCl2. All samples were scanned at 6.5 mT, 64 mT and 550 mT, at sample temperatures ranging from 10 °C to 37 °C. RESULTS The NiCl2 solutions showed little change in T1 and T2 with magnetic field strength, and both relaxation times decreased with increasing temperature. The MnCl2 solutions showed an increase in T1 and a decrease in T2 with increasing magnetic field strength, and both T1 and T2 increased with increasing temperature. DISCUSSION The low field relaxation rates of the NiCl2 and MnCl2 arrays in the ISMRM/NIST system phantom are investigated and compared to results from clinical field strengths of 1.5 T and 3.0 T. The measurements can be used as a benchmark for MRI system functionality and stability, especially when MRI systems are taken out of the radiology suite or laboratory and into less traditional environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele N Martin
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA.
| | - Kalina V Jordanova
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Anthony B Kos
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Stephen E Russek
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Kathryn E Keenan
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
| | - Karl F Stupic
- U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, USA
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3
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Morin DM, Lawrence M, Balcom BJ. Design and validation of a single-sided magnet with a constant gradient parallel to its surface. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2022; 342:107266. [PMID: 35905531 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2022.107266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We present the design, validation, and testing of an optimized 5 MHz three-magnet array with a gradient parallel to the magnet surface. An approach to permanent magnet array design is explored with a genetic algorithm. The genetic algorithm was used to produce multiple designs based on an inventory of available block magnets. One three-magnet array was constructed for testing. Constant gradients of 205, 115, and 61 gauss/cm, parallel to the magnet surface are found at displacements of 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 cm from the surface of the magnet, respectively. Regions of useful gradient are roughly 1 cm in length. We constructed and field plotted the three-magnet array and found good agreement between the experimental and simulated magnet fields. To test applicability, we performed T1 and T2 relaxation measurements on a cod liver oil sample, and a simple doped water flow measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin M Morin
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Maggie Lawrence
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Bruce J Balcom
- UNB MRI Centre, Department of Physics, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada.
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4
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Gruber DM, Fricke SN, Lee V, Balcom BJ, Augustine MP. Coils for large standoff relaxometry with unilateral magnets. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2022; 342:107271. [PMID: 35963026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2022.107271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Maximizing standoff distance by direct placement of probe coils on magnet bodies, while maximizing signal-to-noise is critical to the successful application of unilateral NMR. Two types of radio frequency (rf) coils for linear array, unilateral magnets are described: "simple fringe" and "split fringe coils." These coils are designed to fully exploit the standoff distance of the unilateral magnet by placement directly on the magnet surface. Such placement fails for normal surface coils used for magnetic resonance due to eddy current induced shielding by the conductive magnet surface. The coil design strategy includes a rectangular cross section solenoid coil, either continuous or split in the center, mounted with the center axis of the coil parallel to the magnet surface. These geometries, when placed on a conducting surface, enhance the rf field produced in the sample region, outside of the solenoid coil. The spatial homogeneity of both rf coils are characterized using the ANSYS™ finite element modelling software. ANSYS™ modeled coil geometries led to homogeneous, surface displaced rf fields. These coils were then constructed and characterized with magnetic resonance imaging. Finally, two experiments that use these coils to perform large standoff relaxation measurements are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Gruber
- Department of Chemistry, 69 Chemistry Building, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sophia N Fricke
- Department of Chemistry, 69 Chemistry Building, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Department of Chemistry, 69 Chemistry Building, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Bruce J Balcom
- Department of Physics, UNB MRI Centre, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Matthew P Augustine
- Department of Chemistry, 69 Chemistry Building, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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5
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NMR characterization of structure and moisture sorption dynamics of damaged starch granules. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 285:119220. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Wang Y, Xu Y, Zhang M, Emmanuel Komolafe T, Wang W, Luo H, Chen X, Yang X, Wu Z. A single-sided magnet for deep-depth fat quantification. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2021; 331:107053. [PMID: 34428727 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2021.107053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Early detection of fatty-liver disease is important before further aggravations of the disease, such as cirrhosis, can develop. In this study, we developed a low-cost, movable single-sided magnet for in vivo liver fat quantification. A gradient field of 73.5 G/cm and a field strength of 0.0725 T were obtained by structurally optimizing the concave U-shaped magnet, on which the region of interest (ROI) was a curved shape about 0.4 mm thick, 8 cm above the surface of the radiofrequency (RF) coil. We constructed a prototype nuclear magnetic-resonance (NMR) relaxometry system based on this optimized magnet. Subsequent phantom experiments demonstrated the effectiveness of the single-sided magnet in evaluating different proton density fat fraction (PDFF) phantoms. As expected, the results of the six phantoms showed good positive correlation between PDFF and the fitted fat amplitude, which suggested that single-sided NMR relaxometry could be used to quantify liver fat in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Wang
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, Jiangsu, China; School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yajie Xu
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mingkang Zhang
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, Jiangsu, China; School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Changchun University of Science and Technology, 130022, Changchun, China
| | - Temitope Emmanuel Komolafe
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, Jiangsu, China; School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Weiqian Wang
- Wuxi Marvel Stone Healthcare Co. Ltd., Wuxi 214135, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hai Luo
- Wuxi Marvel Stone Healthcare Co. Ltd., Wuxi 214135, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Wuxi Marvel Stone Healthcare Co. Ltd., Wuxi 214135, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaodong Yang
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Ziyue Wu
- Wuxi Marvel Stone Healthcare Co. Ltd., Wuxi 214135, Jiangsu, China.
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7
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Rudszuck T, Nirschl H, Guthausen G. Perspectives in process analytics using low field NMR. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2021; 323:106897. [PMID: 33518174 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Low field NMR is a powerful analytical tool which creates an enormous added value in process analytics. Based on specific applications in process analytics and perspectives for low field NMR in form of spectroscopy, relaxation, diffusion, and imaging in quality control, diverse applications and technical realizations like spectrometers, time domain NMR, mobile NMR sensors and MRI will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Rudszuck
- Institute for Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, KIT, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - H Nirschl
- Institute for Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, KIT, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - G Guthausen
- Institute for Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, KIT, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; Engler-Bunte Institut, Water Science and Technology, KIT, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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8
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Nakashima Y. Development of a hand-held magnetic resonance sensor for the nondestructive quantification of fat and lean meat of fresh tuna. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-020-00539-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
For the in-situ nondestructive fat quantification of fresh tuna meat, an original lightweight (5.7 kg) hand-held sensor that consists of a planar radio-frequency coil and a single-sided magnetic circuit was developed as a subunit of a time-domain proton magnetic resonance (MR) scanner system. The investigation depth of the sensor unit is 12 mm, which is sufficient to probe the meat section beneath thick skin with scales and the underlying subcutaneous fat layer of large fish such as tuna. The scanner was successfully applied in a laboratory to a fillet of a bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) to measure meat sections 12 mm beneath the skin. The required measurement time was 100 s for each section. The results of MR scan at 11 locations on the fillet were compared with those of conventional destructive food analysis. Reasonable agreement with an error (root-mean-square residual) of as small as 1.8 wt% was obtained for fat quantification. The time-domain MR relaxometry for the same tuna fillet also allowed lean meat quantification with a small root-mean-square residual of 6.7 wt%.
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9
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Michal CA. Low-cost low-field NMR and MRI: Instrumentation and applications. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2020; 319:106800. [PMID: 33036708 PMCID: PMC7538153 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
While NMR and MRI are often thought of as expensive techniques requiring large institutional investment, opportunities for low-cost, low-field NMR and MRI abound. We discuss a number of approaches to performing magnetic resonance experiments with inexpensive, easy to find or build components, aimed at applications in industry, education, and research. Opportunities that aim to make NMR accessible to a broad community are highlighted. We describe and demonstrate some projects from our laboratory, including a new prototype instrument for measurements at frequencies up to ∼200 kHz and demonstrate its application to the study of the rapidly advancing technique known as inhomogeneous magnetization transfer imaging, a promising method for characterizing myelin in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl A Michal
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Road, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada.
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10
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Montrazi ET, Monaretto T, Bonagamba TJ, Colnago LA. New and rapid pulse sequences for two-dimensional D-T 1 correlation measurements. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2020; 315:106749. [PMID: 32438311 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Longitudinal relaxation time (T1), transverse relaxation time (T2) and diffusion coefficient (D) values have been widely used for the characterizations of materials using low field Time Domain Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (TD-NMR). Each parameter can be determined using one-dimensional techniques or their values and correlations by multi-dimensional experiments such as T1-T2, D-T2, and T1-D-T2. In this work, we studied four D-T1 sequences for TD-NMR combining Stejskal-Tanner Pulse Gradient Spin Echo (PGSE) diffusion measurement with Inversion-Recovery (IR), Saturation-Recovery (SR), Small-Angle Continuous Wave Free Precession (CWFP-T1) and Small-Angle Flip-Flop (SAFF) for T1 measurement. The results show that rapid D-T1 measurements can be obtained with single shot CWFP-T1 and SAFF sequences. The two sequences were two and eight time fast than sequences based on SR and IR, respectively. Although the two fast sequences yield low signal-to-noise ratio signal, they can be as fast as the traditional D-T2 experiment, or even faster, because it is not necessary to wait a recycle delay of 5 T1. Another advantage of the CWFP-T1 and SAFF methods, when compared to the one based on SR or CPMG (for D-T2) are the low specific absorption rate (SAR) of these sequences due the low flip angles in the sequences, that reduces the sample heating problem. These sequences were initially studied using phantom samples. They also were used to study plant tissues to observe the anisotropic diffusion in asparagus. Therefore, they can be useful methods for practical application in TD-NMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elton Tadeu Montrazi
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, PO Box 369, 13560-970 São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Tatiana Monaretto
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, PO Box 780, 13560-970 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Tito José Bonagamba
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, PO Box 369, 13560-970 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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11
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Krachkovskiy S, Trudeau ML, Zaghib K. Application of Magnetic Resonance Techniques to the In Situ Characterization of Li-Ion Batteries: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 13:E1694. [PMID: 32260435 PMCID: PMC7178659 DOI: 10.3390/ma13071694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
In situ magnetic resonance (MR) techniques, such as nuclear MR and MR imaging, have recently gained significant attention in the battery community because of their ability to provide real-time quantitative information regarding material chemistry, ion distribution, mass transport, and microstructure formation inside an operating electrochemical cell. MR techniques are non-invasive and non-destructive, and they can be applied to both liquid and solid (crystalline, disordered, or amorphous) samples. Additionally, MR equipment is available at most universities and research and development centers, making MR techniques easily accessible for scientists worldwide. In this review, we will discuss recent research results in the field of in situ MR for the characterization of Li-ion batteries with a particular focus on experimental setups, such as pulse sequence programming and cell design, for overcoming the complications associated with the heterogeneous nature of energy storage devices. A comprehensive approach combining proper hardware and software will allow researchers to collect reliable high-quality data meeting industrial standards.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Karim Zaghib
- Center of Excellence in Transportation, Electrification and Energy Storage, Hydo-Québec, 1806 Bd. Lionel-Boulet, Varennes, QC J3X 1S1, Canada; (S.K.); (M.L.T.)
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12
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Cooley CZ, Stockmann JP, Witzel T, LaPierre C, Mareyam A, Jia F, Zaitsev M, Wenhui Y, Zheng W, Stang P, Scott G, Adalsteinsson E, White JK, Wald LL. Design and implementation of a low-cost, tabletop MRI scanner for education and research prototyping. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2020; 310:106625. [PMID: 31765969 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2019.106625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
While access to a laboratory MRI system is ideal for teaching MR physics as well as many aspects of signal processing, providing multiple MRI scanners can be prohibitively expensive for educational settings. To address this need, we developed a small, low-cost, open-interface tabletop MRI scanner for academic use. We constructed and tested 20 of these scanners for parallel use by teams of 2-3 students in a teaching laboratory. With simplification and down-scaling to a 1 cm FOV, fully-functional scanners were achieved within a budget of $10,000 USD each. The design was successful for teaching MR principles and basic signal processing skills and serves as an accessible testbed for more advanced MR research projects. Customizable GUIs, pulse sequences, and reconstruction code accessible to the students facilitated tailoring the scanner to the needs of laboratory exercise. The scanners have been used by >800 students in 6 different courses and all designs, schematics, sequences, GUIs, and reconstruction code is open-source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Zimmerman Cooley
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Jason P Stockmann
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Thomas Witzel
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Cris LaPierre
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Azma Mareyam
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Feng Jia
- Dept. of Radiology, Medical Physics, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maxim Zaitsev
- Dept. of Radiology, Medical Physics, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yang Wenhui
- Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wang Zheng
- Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pascal Stang
- Procyon Engineering, San Jose, CA, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Greig Scott
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Elfar Adalsteinsson
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jacob K White
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lawrence L Wald
- A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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