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Del Burgo-Gutiérrez C, Ludwig IA, De Peña MP, Cid C. Industrial and culinary treatments applied to Piquillo pepper ( Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo) impact positively on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility and gut microbiota catabolism. Food Funct 2024; 15:2443-2458. [PMID: 38344768 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo04762h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Thermal treatments applied to plant-based foods prior to consumption might influence (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility and the metabolization of these compounds by the gut microbiota. In the present research, the impact of industrial (grilling and canning) and culinary (microwaving and frying) treatments on the bioaccessibility and colonic biotransformations of (poly)phenols from Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annum cv. Piquillo) were evaluated by in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation models and HPLC-ESI-MS/MS. The application of industrial treatments impacted positively on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility compared to raw pepper. Microwaving also exerted a positive effect on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility compared to canning whereas the addition of oil for frying seemed to negatively affect (poly)phenols' release from the food matrix. Throughout the 48 hours of the colonic fermentation process (poly)phenolic compounds were catabolized into different (poly)phenol derivatives whose formation was also positively affected by industrial and culinary treatments. Based on the concentration and time of appearance of these derivatives, catabolic pathways of (poly)phenols from Piquillo pepper were proposed. The major (poly)phenol derivatives identified (3-(3'-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylacetic acid and benzene-1,2-diol) are considered of great interest for the study of their bioactivity and the potential effect on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Del Burgo-Gutiérrez
- University of Navarra, Faculty of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science & Physiology, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
- University of Navarra, Center for Nutrition Research, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Iziar A Ludwig
- University of Navarra, Faculty of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science & Physiology, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
- University of Navarra, Center for Nutrition Research, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain
| | - María-Paz De Peña
- University of Navarra, Faculty of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science & Physiology, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
- University of Navarra, Center for Nutrition Research, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Concepción Cid
- University of Navarra, Faculty of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science & Physiology, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
- University of Navarra, Center for Nutrition Research, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain
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2
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Acosta-Ramírez CI, Lares-Carrillo ID, Ayón-Reyna LE, López-López ME, Vega-García MO, López-Velázquez JG, Gutiérrez-López GF, Osuna-Martínez U, García-Armenta E. A comprehensive study from the micro- to the nanometric scale: Evaluation of chilling injury in tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum). Food Res Int 2024; 176:113822. [PMID: 38163722 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Tomato fruit is susceptible to chilling injury (CI) during its postharvest handling at low temperature. The symptoms caused by this physiological disorder have been commonly evaluated by visual inspection at a macro-observation scale on fruit surface; however, the structure at deeper scales is also affected by CI. This work aimed to propose a descriptive model of the CI development in tomato tissue under the micro-scale, micro-nano-scale and nano-scale approaches using fractal analysis. For that, quality and fractal parameters were determined. In this sense, light microscopy, Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) were applied to analyse micro-, micro-nano- and nano-scales, respectively. Results showed that the morphology of tomato tissue at the micro-scale level was properly described by the multifractal behaviour. Also, generalised fractal dimension (Dq=0) and texture fractal dimension (FD) of CI-damaged pericarp and cuticle were higher (1.659, 1.601 and 1.746, respectively) in comparison to non-chilled samples (1.606, 1.578 and 1.644, respectively); however, FD was unsuitable to detect morphological changes at the nano-scale. On the other hand, lacunarity represented an appropriate fractal parameter to detect CI symptoms at the nano-scale due to differences observed between damaged and regular ripe tissue (0.044 and 0.025, respectively). The proposed multi-scale approach could improve the understanding of CI as a complex disorder to the development of novel techniques to avoid this postharvest issue at different observation scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- C I Acosta-Ramírez
- Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico; Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - I D Lares-Carrillo
- Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - L E Ayón-Reyna
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - M E López-López
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - M O Vega-García
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - J G López-Velázquez
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - G F Gutiérrez-López
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - U Osuna-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Farmacia, Farmacobiología y Toxicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico
| | - E García-Armenta
- Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico; Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Ciudad Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa 80013, Mexico.
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3
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Del Burgo-Gutiérrez C, Cid C, Ludwig IA, De Peña MP. LC-MS/MS Analysis Elucidates the Different Effects of Industrial and Culinary Processing on Total and Individual (Poly)phenolic Compounds of Piquillo Pepper ( Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:6050-6060. [PMID: 37014295 PMCID: PMC10119983 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c07829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Pepper constitutes an important source of (poly)phenols, mainly flavonoids. Nevertheless, heat treatments applied prior to consumption may have an impact on these antioxidants, and thus may also affect their potential bioactivity. In this study, the effect of industrial and culinary treatments on the total and individual (poly)phenolic content of Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo) was thoroughly evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 40 (poly)phenols were identified and quantified in raw pepper. Flavonoids (10 flavonols, 15 flavones, and 2 flavanones) were the major compounds identified (62.6%). Among the 13 phenolic acids identified in raw samples, cinnamic acids were the most representative. High temperatures applied and subsequent peeling during industrial grilling drastically decreased the total (poly)phenolic content from 2736.34 to 1099.38 μg/g dm (59.8% reduction). In particular, flavonoids showed a higher reduction of 87.2% after grilling compared to nonflavonoids which only decreased by 14%. Moreover, 9 nonflavonoids were generated during grilling, modifying the (poly)phenolic profile. After culinary treatments, specifically frying, (poly)phenols appear to be better released from the food matrix, enhancing their extractability. Overall, industrial and culinary treatments differently affect both the total and individual (poly)phenolic compounds of pepper and, despite the reduction, they might also positively influence their bioaccessibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Del Burgo-Gutiérrez
- Faculty
of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science
& Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- Center
for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Concepción Cid
- Faculty
of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science
& Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- Center
for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA,
Navarra Institute for Health Research, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Iziar A. Ludwig
- Faculty
of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science
& Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- Center
for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA,
Navarra Institute for Health Research, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - María-Paz De Peña
- Faculty
of Pharmacy & Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Food Science
& Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- Center
for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, c/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA,
Navarra Institute for Health Research, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
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Tiamiyu QO, Adebayo SE, Ibrahim N. Recent advances on postharvest technologies of bell pepper: A review. Heliyon 2023; 9:e15302. [PMID: 37151666 PMCID: PMC10161617 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a commercially important horticultural crop grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas across the world. Despite this importance, it is a perishable vegetable with a limited shelf life and high disease susceptibility. Bell pepper output has expanded significantly in recent years. However, this crop is still experiencing close to 40% postharvest losses annually. Chemical fumigation for postharvest disease control of bell pepper has been shown to be efficient against fungal infections, but environmental impact and consumption hazards limit its full use. Recently, non-chemical techniques including biological and botanical methods, non-destructive technologies and Artificial intelligence have been demonstrated to be effective as postharvest management of bell pepper. The paper provides exciting information on recent and emerging techniques for curtailing these losses in bell pepper, alongside their mechanism and existing benefits. The current limitations of these techniques as well as recommendations for potential applications are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quazeem Omotoyosi Tiamiyu
- Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Process Engineering and Technology, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
| | - Segun Emmanuel Adebayo
- Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Process Engineering and Technology, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
- Corresponding author.
| | - Nimat Ibrahim
- Department of Crop Production, School of Agriculture & Agricultural Technology, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
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Rosa-Martínez E, Bovy A, Plazas M, Tikunov Y, Prohens J, Pereira-Dias L. Genetics and breeding of phenolic content in tomato, eggplant and pepper fruits. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1135237. [PMID: 37025131 PMCID: PMC10070870 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1135237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Phenolic acids and flavonoids are large groups of secondary metabolites ubiquitous in the plant kingdom. They are currently in the spotlight due to the numerous health benefits associated with their consumption, as well as for their vital roles in plant biological processes and in plant-environment interaction. Tomato, eggplant and pepper are in the top ten most consumed vegetables in the world, and their fruit accumulation profiles have been extensively characterized, showing substantial differences. A broad array of genetic and genomic tools has helped to identify QTLs and candidate genes associated with the fruit biosynthesis of phenolic acids and flavonoids. The aim of this review was to synthesize the available information making it easily available for researchers and breeders. The phenylpropanoid pathway is tightly regulated by structural genes, which are conserved across species, along with a complex network of regulatory elements like transcription factors, especially of MYB family, and cellular transporters. Moreover, phenolic compounds accumulate in tissue-specific and developmental-dependent ways, as different paths of the metabolic pathway are activated/deactivated along with fruit development. We retrieved 104 annotated putative orthologues encoding for key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway in tomato (37), eggplant (29) and pepper (38) and compiled 267 QTLs (217 for tomato, 16 for eggplant and 34 for pepper) linked to fruit phenolic acids, flavonoids and total phenolics content. Combining molecular tools and genetic variability, through both conventional and genetic engineering strategies, is a feasible approach to improve phenolics content in tomato, eggplant and pepper. Finally, although the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway has been well-studied in the Solanaceae, more research is needed on the identification of the candidate genes behind many QTLs, as well as their interactions with other QTLs and genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Rosa-Martínez
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Arnaud Bovy
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Mariola Plazas
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Yury Tikunov
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Jaime Prohens
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Leandro Pereira-Dias
- Instituto de Conservación y Mejora de la Agrodiversidad Valenciana, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
- Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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New mechanistic insights on Justicia vahlii Roth: UPLC-Q-TOF-MS and GC–MS based metabolomics, in-vivo, in-silico toxicological, antioxidant based anti-inflammatory and enzyme inhibition evaluation. ARAB J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
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7
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López-Velázquez JG, López-López ME, Rubio-Trías A, Ayón-Reyna LE, Díaz-Corona DA, Olivas Orozco GI, Molina-Corral J, Vega-García MO. Cell wall stabilization and calcium absorption on mango fruit treated with a quarantine hot water treatment combined with calcium salts and stored at chilling temperature. J Food Biochem 2022; 46:e14266. [PMID: 35652286 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.14266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Hot water treatment (HT) induces chilling injury (CI) tolerance in mango, but prolonged exposure to HT causes softening. In this sense, calcium salts stabilize the cell wall. Nevertheless, there is little information on the effect of HT combined with calcium salts (HT-Ca) on calcium absorption and cell wall stability during storage of mango at CI temperature. We evaluated the effect of quarantine HT in combination with calcium chloride (CaCl2 ), calcium citrate (CaCit), or calcium lactate (CaLac) on calcium absorption, CI tolerance, and cell wall stabilization. HT and HT-CaCl2 had the lowest CI development. HT increased firmness loss and electrolyte leakage, and HT-Ca counteracted this effect. Overall, HT-Ca treatments had a similar effect on the cell wall degrading enzymes. HT-CaCl2 was the best treatment and did not present alterations on the epicuticular wax as observed on HT. HT-CaCl2 is a useful technology to stabilize cell wall and preserve mango during chilling storage. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The addition of calcium salts in an established hot water quarantine procedure for mango exportation represents a viable alternative to counteract the negative effects of this thermal treatment upon cell microstructure, maintaining its positive effect of tolerance to chilling injury. In this sense, mango producers and packers can use a HT-CaCl2 treatment to reduce the presence of chilling injury and extent the fruit shelf life and improve its commercialization. Furthermore, technical and infrastructure changes are not necessary for the packaging chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi G López-Velázquez
- Doctorado Regional en Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Martha E López-López
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Andrés Rubio-Trías
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Lidia E Ayón-Reyna
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Denisse A Díaz-Corona
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | | | - Javier Molina-Corral
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Cd. Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Misael O Vega-García
- Doctorado Regional en Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico.,Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico
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Gabriela LA, Gerardo LVJ, Odín VGM, Denisse BAW, Francisco DV, Elena ARL, Edith LLM. Antioxidant enzymatic changes in bell pepper fruit associated with chilling injury tolerance induced by hot water. J Food Biochem 2021; 45:e13966. [PMID: 34658045 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Green bell pepper is highly susceptible to low temperature. The activation of the enzymatic antioxidant system plays a determining role in tolerance to chilling injury (CI). Immersion in hot water for short time previous to storage at low temperature induces tolerance to this disorder. However, there is a lack of information about the induction of chilling tolerance in bell pepper by hot water and its relationship with the enzymatic antioxidant system. We evaluated the effect of three immersion times (T, 1-, 2-, 3-min) in hot water (HW, 53°C) on the reduction of CI in bell pepper and its relationship with the enzymatic antioxidant system during storage at 5°C and 21°C. The use of hot water for 1-, 2- or 3-min reduced the decay and CI indexes, maintained quality parameters, ascorbic acid, and total phenolics content. The storage at 5°C by itself activated the enzymatic antioxidant system. The use of HWT 1-, 2-, and 3-min helped to increase this effect, especially by HWT2 . PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The application of a treatment with hot water for short times in fruit sensitive to chilling injury is undoubtedly a viable alternative to increase their tolerance and commercialization. In this study, the application of a hot water treatment for 1-, 2- or 3-min in bell pepper reduced the deterioration and susceptibility to chilling injury and stimulated the enzymatic antioxidant system. In this sense, agricultural producers can take advantage of this treatment to prolong the storage period of the fruit maintaining its quality and improving its commercialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- López-Angulo Gabriela
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - López-Velázquez Jordi Gerardo
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - Vega-García Misael Odín
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - Bojórquez-Acosta Wendy Denisse
- Licenciatura en Ingeniería Bioquímica de la Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa Cd. Universitaria, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - Delgado-Vargas Francisco
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - Ayón-Reyna Lidia Elena
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
| | - López-López Martha Edith
- Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México
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