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Wilson VAD, Bethell EJ, Nawroth C. The use of gaze to study cognition: limitations, solutions, and applications to animal welfare. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1147278. [PMID: 37205074 PMCID: PMC10185774 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1147278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The study of gaze responses, typically using looking time paradigms, has become a popular approach to improving our understanding of cognitive processes in non-verbal individuals. Our interpretation of data derived from these paradigms, however, is constrained by how we conceptually and methodologically approach these problems. In this perspective paper, we outline the application of gaze studies in comparative cognitive and behavioral research and highlight current limitations in the interpretation of commonly used paradigms. Further, we propose potential solutions, including improvements to current experimental approaches, as well as broad-scale benefits of technology and collaboration. Finally, we outline the potential benefits of studying gaze responses from an animal welfare perspective. We advocate the implementation of these proposals across the field of animal behavior and cognition to aid experimental validity, and further advance our knowledge on a variety of cognitive processes and welfare outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A. D. Wilson
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Vanessa A. D. Wilson,
| | - Emily J. Bethell
- Research Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Nawroth
- Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, Germany
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Chaib S, Mussoi JG, Lind O, Kelber A. Visual acuity of budgerigars for moving targets. Biol Open 2021; 10:272046. [PMID: 34382651 PMCID: PMC8473842 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
For a bird, it is often vital to visually detect food items, predators, or individuals from the same flock, i.e. moving stimuli of various shapes. Yet, behavioural tests of visual spatial acuity traditionally use stationary gratings as stimuli. We have behaviourally tested the ability of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to detect a black circular target, moving semi-randomly at 1.69 degrees s−1 against a brighter background. We found a detection threshold of 0.107±0.007 degrees of the visual field for a target size corresponding to a resolution of a grating with a spatial frequency of 4.68 cycles degree−1. This detection threshold is lower than the resolution limit for gratings but similar to the threshold for stationary single objects of the same shape. We conclude that the target acuity of budgerigars for moving single targets, just as for stationary single targets, is lower than their acuity for gratings. Summary: Movement does not improve detection: The detection threshold of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) for moving dark circular targets is similar to the detection threshold for stationary but otherwise similar targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Chaib
- Lund Vision Group, Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Olle Lind
- Lund Vision Group, Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Almut Kelber
- Lund Vision Group, Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
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Clark WJ, Colombo M. The functional architecture, receptive field characteristics, and representation of objects in the visual network of the pigeon brain. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 195:101781. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Dogs ( Canis familiaris) Gaze at Our Hands: A Preliminary Eye-Tracker Experiment on Selective Attention in Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10050755. [PMID: 32357412 PMCID: PMC7277565 DOI: 10.3390/ani10050755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Dogs seem to communicate with humans successfully by getting social information from body signals such as hand signs. However, less is known regarding how dogs pay attention visually toward human body signals including hand signs. The objective of this pilot study was to reveal dogs’ social visual attention tuned to inter-species communication with humans by comparing gazing patterns to the whole body of human, dogs, and cats. The pictures showing humans with or without hand signs, dogs, and cats were presented on a liquid crystal display monitor, and gazing behaviors of subject dogs to these pictures were recorded by an eye-tracking device. The subjects gazed at human limns more frequently than limbs within conspecifics and cat images, where the dogs attention were focused on the head and body. Furthermore, gaze toward hands was greater in the human hand sign photos relative to photos where human hand signs were not present. These results indicate that dogs have an attentional style specialized for human non-verbal communication, with an emphasis placed on human hand gestures. Abstract Dogs have developed a social competence tuned to communicate with human and acquire social information from body signals as well as facial expressions. However, less is known regarding how dogs shift attention toward human body signals, specifically hand signs. Comparison among visual attentional patterns of dogs toward whole body of human being, conspecifics, and other species will reveal dogs’ basic social competences and those specialized to inter-species communication with humans. The present study investigated dogs’ gazing behaviors in three conditions: viewing humans with or without hand signs, viewing conspecifics, and viewing cats. Digital color photographs were presented on a liquid crystal display monitor, and subject dogs viewed the images while their eyes were tracked. Results revealed that subjects gazed at human limbs more than limbs within conspecific and cat images, where attention was predominately focused on the head and body. Furthermore, gaze toward hands was greater in the human hand sign photos relative to photos where human hand signs were not present. These results indicate that dogs have an attentional style specialized for human non-verbal communication, with an emphasis placed on human hand gestures.
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Clark WJ, Porter B, Colombo M. Searching for Face-Category Representation in the Avian Visual Forebrain. Front Physiol 2019; 10:140. [PMID: 30873042 PMCID: PMC6400864 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual information is processed hierarchically along a ventral ('what') pathway that terminates with categorical representation of biologically relevant visual percepts (such as faces) in the mammalian extrastriate visual cortex. How birds solve face and object representation without a neocortex is a long-standing problem in evolutionary neuroscience, though multiple lines of evidence suggest that these abilities arise from circuitry fundamentally similar to the extrastriate visual cortex. The aim of the present experiment was to determine whether birds also exhibit a categorical representation of the avian face-region in four visual forebrain structures of the tectofugal visual pathway: entopallium (ENTO), mesopallium ventrolaterale (MVL), nidopallium frontolaterale (NFL), and area temporo-parieto-occipitalis (TPO). We performed electrophysiological recordings from the right and left hemispheres of 13 pigeons while they performed a Go/No-Go task that required them to discriminate between two sets of stimuli that included images of pigeon faces. No neurons fired selectively to only faces in either ENTO, NFL, MVL, or TPO. Birds' predisposition to attend to the local-features of stimuli may influence the perception of faces as a global combination of features, and explain our observed absence of face-selective neurons. The implementation of naturalistic viewing paradigms in conjunction with electrophysiological and fMRI techniques has the potential to promote and uncover the global processing of visual objects to determine whether birds exhibit category-selective patches in the tectofugal visual forebrain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Blake Porter
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Michael Colombo
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Dawson Pell FS, Potvin DA, Ratnayake CP, Fernández-Juricic E, Magrath RD, Radford AN. Birds orient their heads appropriately in response to functionally referential alarm calls of heterospecifics. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Butler SR, Fernández-Juricic E. European starlings use their acute vision to check on feline predators but not on conspecifics. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0188857. [PMID: 29370164 PMCID: PMC5784912 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Head movements allow birds with laterally placed eyes to move their centers of acute vision around and align them with objects of interest. Consequently, head movements have been used as indicator of fixation behavior (where gaze is maintained). However, studies on head movement behavior have not elucidated the degree to which birds use high-acuity or low-acuity vision. We studied how European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) used high-acuity vision in the early stages of visual exploration of a stuffed cat (common terrestrial predator), a taxidermy Cooper’s hawk (common aerial predator), and a stuffed study skin of a conspecific. We found that starlings tended to use their high acuity vision when looking at predators, particularly, the cat was above chance levels. However, when they viewed a conspecific, they used high acuity vision as expected by chance. We did not observe a preference for the left or right center of acute vision. Our findings suggest that starlings exposed to a predator (particularly cats) may employ selective attention by using high-acuity vision to obtain quickly detailed information useful for a potential escape, but exposed to a social context may use divided attention by allocating similar levels high- and low-quality vision to monitor both conspecifics and the rest of the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon R. Butler
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Esteban Fernández-Juricic
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
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Ronald KL, Ensminger AL, Shawkey MD, Lucas JR, Fernández-Juricic E. Testing a key assumption in animal communication: between-individual variation in female visual systems alters perception of male signals. Biol Open 2017; 6:1771-1783. [PMID: 29247048 PMCID: PMC5769651 DOI: 10.1242/bio.028282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Variation in male signal production has been extensively studied because of its relevance to animal communication and sexual selection. Although we now know much about the mechanisms that can lead to variation between males in the properties of their signals, there is still a general assumption that there is little variation in terms of how females process these male signals. Variation between females in signal processing may lead to variation between females in how they rank individual males, meaning that one single signal may not be universally attractive to all females. We tested this assumption in a group of female wild-caught brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater), a species that uses a male visual signal (e.g. a wingspread display) to make its mate-choice decisions. We found that females varied in two key parameters of their visual sensory systems related to chromatic and achromatic vision: cone densities (both total and proportions) and cone oil droplet absorbance. Using visual chromatic and achromatic contrast modeling, we then found that this between-individual variation in visual physiology leads to significant between-individual differences in how females perceive chromatic and achromatic male signals. These differences may lead to variation in female preferences for male visual signals, which would provide a potential mechanism for explaining individual differences in mate-choice behavior. Summary: Animal communication studies often assume receiver perception is equal across individuals; we found females vary in their visual physiology and perception of male signals which could influence their mating decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly L Ronald
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Jordan Hall, 1001 E 3rd Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA .,Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, Lilly Hall, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Amanda L Ensminger
- Morningside College, Biology Department, 1501 Morningside Avenue, Sioux City, IA 51106, USA
| | - Matthew D Shawkey
- Evolution and Optics of Nanostructure Group, Department of Biology, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Jeffrey R Lucas
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, Lilly Hall, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Esteban Fernández-Juricic
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, Lilly Hall, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Tyrrell LP, Fernández-Juricic E. Avian binocular vision: It's not just about what birds can see, it's also about what they can't. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173235. [PMID: 28355250 PMCID: PMC5371358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
With the exception of primates, most vertebrates have laterally placed eyes. Binocular vision in vertebrates has been implicated in several functions, including depth perception, contrast discrimination, etc. However, the blind area in front of the head that is proximal to the binocular visual field is often neglected. This anterior blind area is important when discussing the evolution of binocular vision because its relative length is inversely correlated with the width of the binocular field. Therefore, species with wider binocular fields also have shorter anterior blind areas and objects along the mid-sagittal plane can be imaged at closer distances. Additionally, the anterior blind area is of functional significance for birds because the beak falls within this blind area. We tested for the first time some specific predictions about the functional role of the anterior blind area in birds controlling for phylogenetic effects. We used published data on visual field configuration in 40 species of birds and measured beak and skull parameters from museum specimens. We found that birds with proportionally longer beaks have longer anterior blind areas and thus narrower binocular fields. This result suggests that the anterior blind area and beak visibility do play a role in shaping binocular fields, and that binocular field width is not solely determined by the need for stereoscopic vision. In visually guided foragers, the ability to see the beak-and how much of the beak can be seen-varies predictably with foraging habits. For example, fish- and insect-eating specialists can see more of their own beak than birds eating immobile food can. But in non-visually guided foragers, there is no consistent relationship between the beak and anterior blind area. We discuss different strategies-wide binocular fields, large eye movements, and long beaks-that minimize the potential negative effects of the anterior blind area. Overall, we argue that there is more to avian binocularity than meets the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke P. Tyrrell
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Esteban Fernández-Juricic
- Purdue University, Department of Biological Sciences, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
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Does retinal configuration make the head and eyes of foveate birds move? Sci Rep 2017; 7:38406. [PMID: 28079062 PMCID: PMC5228126 DOI: 10.1038/srep38406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals move their heads and eyes to compensate for movements of the body and background, search, fixate, and track objects visually. Avian saccadic head/eye movements have been shown to vary considerably between species. We tested the hypothesis that the configuration of the retina (i.e., changes in retinal ganglion cell density from the retinal periphery to the center of acute vision-fovea) would account for the inter-specific variation in avian head/eye movement behavior. We characterized retinal configuration, head movement rate, and degree of eye movement of 29 bird species with a single fovea, controlling for the effects of phylogenetic relatedness. First, we found the avian fovea is off the retinal center towards the dorso-temporal region of the retina. Second, species with a more pronounced rate of change in ganglion cell density across the retina generally showed a higher degree of eye movement and higher head movement rate likely because a smaller retinal area with relatively high visual acuity leads to greater need to move the head/eye to align this area that contains the fovea with objects of interest. Our findings have implications for anti-predator behavior, as many predator-prey interaction models assume that the sensory system of prey (and hence their behavior) varies little between species.
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Function and structure of vigilance in a gregarious species exposed to threats from predators and conspecifics. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Tyrrell LP, Butler SR, Fernández-Juricic E. Oculomotor strategy of an avian ground forager: tilted and weakly yoked eye saccades. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:2651-7. [PMID: 26139661 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.122820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Many bird species are capable of large saccadic eye movements that can result in substantial shifts in gaze direction and complex changes to their visual field orientation. In the absence of visual stimuli, birds make spontaneous saccades that follow an endogenous oculomotor strategy. We used new eye-tracking technology specialized for small birds to study the oculomotor behavior of an open-habitat, ground-foraging songbird, the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). We found that starlings primarily move their eyes along a tilted axis 13.46 deg downwards anteriorly and upwards posteriorly, which differs from the axis parallel to the horizon employed by other species. This tilted axis could enhance foraging and anti-predator strategies while starlings are head-down looking for food, allowing them to direct vision between the open mandibles to visually inspect food items, and above and behind the head to scan areas where predators are more likely to attack. We also found that starlings have neither fully conjugate saccades (as in humans, for example) nor independent saccades (as in chameleons, for example). Rather, they exhibit weakly yoked saccades where the left and right eyes move at the same time but not at the same magnitude. Functionally, weakly yoked saccades may be similar to independent saccades in that they allow the two eyes to concomitantly perform different tasks. The differences between the oculomotor strategies of studied species suggest eye movements play variable but important roles across bird species with different ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke P Tyrrell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Shannon R Butler
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Esteban Fernández-Juricic
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Webster RJ, Godin JGJ, Sherratt TN. The role of body shape and edge characteristics on the concealment afforded by potentially disruptive marking. Anim Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Winters S, Dubuc C, Higham JP. Perspectives: The Looking Time Experimental Paradigm in Studies of Animal Visual Perception and Cognition. Ethology 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Winters
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
| | - Constance Dubuc
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
| | - James P. Higham
- Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York NY USA
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