Randomized Controlled Feasibility Trial of Intranasal Ketamine Compared to Intranasal Fentanyl for Analgesia in Children with Suspected Extremity Fractures

Intranasal atomized dexmedetomidine alone or in combination with ketamine or midazolam to sedate healthy dogs

A prospective, randomized, blinded experiment was conducted to compare the effects of intranasal (IN) dexmedetomidine (Dex, 10 µg/kg; n=12) alone or combined with midazolam (DexM, 0.3 mg/kg; n=12) or ketamine (DexK, 2 mg/kg; n=12) in healthy dogs. Ease of administration (EA1), total administration time (TAT), time for first (TA1) and second nostril administration (TA2), and adverse events during atomization were recorded. Two days later, EA2 was assessed by IN atomization of injectable water as an additional outcome variable. Onset of sedation was evaluated, along with behavioral scores and physiological parameters from T0 (baseline) to T120. Statistical analyses included Chi-square, one-way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis, repeated measures or Friedman's ANOVA, and Wilcoxon's tests. Significance was p≤0.05. Onset of sedation was 12.9 ± 4.1, 18.2 ± 7.5, and 9.9 ± 4.3 mins (mean ± SD) for Dex, DexM, and DexK, respectively. Onset was shorter in DexK compared to DexM (p=0.002), explaining the lower behavioral scores in DexM at T15. All dogs in Dex and DexK reached adequate sedation, with peak sedation occurring at T30, while some dogs in DexM never reached adequate sedation and this group peaked at T45. Adverse events such as saliva drooling and pawing at the nose were significantly higher in DexM and DexK, explaining their differences in TA2, TAT, and EA1 comparing to Dex. EA2 was also higher in Dex compared to DexM and DexK. In conclusion, Dex was better tolerated in dogs and DexK showed faster and more profound sedative effects. Due to paradoxical excitement, unpredictable sedation, and nasal irritation, DexM is not recommended.

Low-dose ketamine for acute pain: A narrative review

INTRODUCTION

Acute pain management is a critical component of prehospital and emergency medical care. Opioids are effective; however, the risks and side-effects of opioids have led providers to use low-dose ketamine (LDK) for safe and effective treatment of acute pain.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping narrative review to explore the efficacy of LDK for the treatment of acute pain in the prehospital setting and emergency department (ED) setting. The prehospital review includes studies evaluating the use of LDK in both civilian and military settings. We utilized PubMed to identify prospective and retrospective clinical studies related to this topic. We limited study inclusion to quality prospective and retrospective clinical and observational studies published in the English language prior to January 30, 2024. We did not limit study inclusion based on patient population or mode of administration. We utilized the PRISMA-ScR checklist to conduct this review.

RESULTS

Using our methodology, we found 249 publications responsive to our search strategy. Of these, 178 publications were clearly outside inclusion criteria based on abstract review. Seventy-one studies were sought for retrieval and more detailed review. Of these, 22 records were excluded after review and 43 met initial inclusion criteria. An additional 22 studies were found via snowballing. In total, 64 studies met inclusion criteria for this analysis. 21 studies related to the treatment of acute pain in the prehospital setting, four of which were randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Forty-three studies evaluate the treatment of acute pain in the ED. This included 28 RCTs. Taken together, the studies suggest that LDK is non-inferior to opioids when used alone. When used as an adjunct to opioid therapy, LDK can provide an opioid-sparing effect. Ketamine doses <0.5 mg/kg were not associated with significant side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

LDK is a safe and effective option for acute pain treatment. It can be used as an alternative therapy to opioids or used in conjunction with them to reduce opioid exposure through its opioid-sparing effect. Importantly, LDK is available in a variety of formulations including intramuscular, intravenous, and intranasal, making it an effective acute pain treatment option in both the prehospital and ED settings. LDK holds promise as an emergency treatment in the evolving landscape of acute pain management.

Use of intranasal and sublingual analgesia in children and adolescents in the paediatric emergency department

BACKGROUND

Despite evidence showing that the intranasal and sublingual routes are safe and effective in providing analgesia, no data are available about their day-to-day use in the emergency department (ED). The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of the use of the intranasal and sublingual routes, and the clinical characteristics of the patients receiving analgesia through these routes.

METHODS

A multicentre study was performed in the EDs participating in the Pain in Paediatric Emergency Room research group. It included a survey and a retrospective data collection in which the medical records of all patients who received analgesia from 1 April 2022 to 31 May 2022 were collected.

RESULTS

48 centres (91%) answered the survey. The intranasal and sublingual routes were used in 25 centres (52%). 13 centres (27%) used both routes, 9 centres (19%) used only the sublingual and 3 centres (6%) used only the intranasal route.12 centres (48%) participated in the retrospective study. Data about 3409 patients, median age 9 years (IQR 5-12), were collected. Among them, 337 patients (9.6%) received sublingual analgesia, and 87 patients (2.5%) received intranasal analgesia. The intranasal route was employed for injuries in 79 (90.8%) cases, and fentanyl was the drug delivered in 85 (97.7%) cases. The sublingual route was used mainly for injuries (57.3%), but also for abdominal pain (15.4%), musculoskeletal pain (14.5%) and headache (10.7%). Paracetamol, ketorolac and tramadol were administered through this route.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of the intranasal and sublingual routes for analgesia in the paediatric ED is still limited.

Intranasal Fentanyl Versus Morphine in Fracture Reduction in a Pediatric Trauma Center

PURPOSE

Pain management in orthopaedic manipulation in the emergency department (ED) is crucial to decrease fracture reduction performed in the operating room. This study compared intranasal fentanyl (INF) with oral morphine in time of care and effectiveness on pain during the reduction of bone fractures in a pediatric trauma center.

METHODS

A before-and-after INF implementation study was conducted in a pediatric ED with a trauma center on children with a confirmed displaced closed fracture on radiographs with reduction and casting performed in the ED. The time of care, time for sufficient analgesia, effectiveness on pain, and tolerance were compared between both analgesics in 3 consecutive phases.

RESULTS

77 children were included: 31 children received oral morphine and 46 INF. The time of care was shorter in the INF group (150 [111 to 193] minutes versus 215 [155 to 240], P = 0.01) as the time for sufficient analgesia (10 [9 to 13] minutes versus 80 [53 to 119], P < 0.001) with a higher pain reduction after a dose of INF (3 [0 to 4] versus 6 [3 to 7], P < 0.001) and less dose requirement (P = 0.002). Although pain scores were similar at arrival in both groups (P = 0.15), the pain was significantly lower before and during the procedure in the INF group and equivalent after the procedure (2 [0 to 4] versus 3 [0 to 5], P = 0.02, 3 [1 to 5] versus 7 [3 to 9], P < 0.001, and 1 [0 to 2] in both groups, P = 0.87, respectively). Keeping pain levels low during the procedure in the INF group allowed the extension to lower limb fracture reductions (P = 0.04). No serious adverse events were reported.

CONCLUSION

INF reduces the time to obtain sufficient analgesia and time of care, with good effectiveness maintained during the procedure in fracture reduction, allowing the extension to lower limb fractures. Thus, this rapid and efficient analgesia facilitates orthopaedic care in the pediatric ED that would otherwise require to be reduced in the operating room under general anesthesia.

Effectiveness and safety of prehospital analgesia including nalbuphine and paracetamol by paramedics: an observational study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness and safety of prehospital analgesia with nalbuphine and/or paracetamol by paramedics.

METHODS

In this retrospective trial, following the implementation of a standard-operating-procedure for pain requiring treatment as defined as a score ≥4 on the 0-10 Numeric Rating Scale for pain, all emergency operations in the district of Gütersloh between January 1, 2020, and June 30, 2022, with analgesic administration by paramedics in patients ≥18 years were included in the study. Analgesic agents employed by the paramedics included nalbuphine and/or paracetamol, butylscopolamine for abdominal colic, and esketamine in case of failure of the other analgesics. The primary endpoint was the patients' rating of their pain on the Numeric Rating Scale at the end of the operation. Additional covariates included sex, cause of pain, analgesics used, Numeric Rating Scale at beginning and analgesic-associated complications (reduced level of consciousness, hypotension, desaturation, a- or bradypnea).

RESULTS

A total of 1931 emergency operations (female: N.=1039 [53.8%]) with pain requiring treatment (non-traumatic cause: N.=1106 [57.3%]; initial Numeric Rating Scale: 8.0±1.4). Analgesics applied were nalbuphine + paracetamol (50.6%), paracetamol (38.7%), butylscopolamine (13.4%), nalbuphine (7.7%), and esketamine (4.9%). Mean pain reduction was 4.3±2.3 (nalbuphine + paracetamol: 5.0±2.1; nalbuphine: 4.7±2.3) and paracetamol: 3.3±2.2, respectively. Factors influencing a change in the Numeric Rating Scale were trauma (regression-coefficient: -0.308, 95% CI: -0.496 - -0.119, P=0.0014 vs. non-trauma; nalbuphine [yes vs. no]: regression-coefficient 0.684, 95% CI 0.0774-1.291, P=0.03; nalbuphine + paracetamol: regression-coefficient 0.763, 95% CI 0.227-1.299, P=0.005). At the end of the operation, 49.7% had a Numeric Rating Scale <4, 34.3% had a Numeric Rating Scale 4-5, and 16.0% had a Numeric Rating Scale ≥6. Factors influencing a Numeric Rating Scale <4 at end of use were trauma vs. non-trauma: odds ratio 0.788, 95% CI 0.649-0.957, P=0.02. The Numeric Rating Scale at beginning reported: odds ratios 0.754, 95% CI 0.700-0.812, P<0.0001. Analgesic-associated complications were not observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Prehospital analgesia by paramedics with nalbuphine as monotherapy or in combination with paracetamol allows for sufficient analgesia without the occurrence of complications.

Intranasal analgesia for acute moderate to severe pain in children - a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Children in acute pain often receive inadequate pain relief, partly from difficulties administering injectable analgesics. A rapid-acting, intranasal (IN) analgesic may be an alternative to other parenteral routes of administration. Our review compares the efficacy, safety, and acceptability of intranasal analgesia to intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) administration; and to compare different intranasal agents.

METHODS

We searched Cochrane Library, MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, Web of Knowledge, Clinicaltrials.gov, Controlled-trials.com/mrcr, Clinicaltrialsregister.eu, Apps.who.int/trialsearch. We also screened reference lists of included trials and relevant systematic reviews. Studies in English from any year were included. Two authors independently assessed all studies. We included randomised trials (RCTs) of children 0-16, with moderate to severe pain; comparing intranasal analgesia to intravenous or intramuscular analgesia, or to other intranasal agents. We excluded studies of procedural sedation or analgesia. We extracted study characteristics and outcome data and assessed risk of bias with the ROB 2.0-tool. We conducted meta-analysis and narrative review, evaluating the certainty of evidence using GRADE. Outcomes included pain reduction, adverse events, acceptability, rescue medication, ease of and time to administration.

RESULTS

We included 12 RCTs with a total of 1163 children aged 3 to 20, most below 10 years old, with a variety of conditions. Our review shows that: - There may be little or no difference in pain relief (single dose IN vs IV fentanyl MD 4 mm, 95% CI -8 to 16 at 30 min by 100 mm VAS; multiple doses IN vs IV fentanyl MD 0, 95%CI -0.35 to 0.35 at 15 min by Hannallah score; single dose IN vs IV ketorolac MD 0.8, 95% CI -0.4 to 1.9 by Faces Pain Scale-Revised), adverse events (single dose IN vs IV fentanyl RR 3.09, 95% CI 0.34 to 28.28; multiple doses IN vs IV fentanyl RR 1.50, 95%CI 0.29 to 7.81); single dose IN vs IV ketorolac RR 0.716, 95% CI 0.23 to 2.26), or acceptability (single dose IN vs IV ketorolac RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.04) between intranasal and intravenous analgesia (low certainty evidence). - Intranasal diamorphine or fentanyl probably give similar pain relief to intramuscular morphine (narrative review), and are probably more acceptable (RR 1.60, 95% CI 1.42 to 1.81) and tolerated better (RR 0.061, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.13 for uncooperative/negative reaction) (moderate certainty); adverse events may be similar (narrative review) (low certainty). - Intranasal ketamine gives similar pain relief to intranasal fentanyl (SMD 0.05, 95% CI -0.20 to 0.29 at 30 min), while having a higher risk of light sedation (RR 1.74, 95% CI 1.30 to 2.35) and mild side effects (RR 2.16, 95% CI 1.72 to 2.71) (high certainty). Need for rescue analgesia is probably similar (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.17) (moderate certainty), and acceptability may be similar (RR 1.15, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.48) (low certainty).

CONCLUSIONS

Our review suggests that intranasal analgesics are probably a good alternative to intramuscular analgesics in children with acute moderate to severe pain; and may be an alternative to intravenous administration. Intranasal ketamine gives similar pain relief to fentanyl, but causes more sedation, which should inform the choice of intranasal agent.

Narrative Review: Low-Dose Ketamine for Pain Management

Pain is the leading cause of medical consultations and occurs in 50-70% of emergency department visits. To date, several drugs have been used to manage pain. The clinical use of ketamine began in the 1960s and it immediately emerged as a manageable and safe drug for sedation and anesthesia. The analgesic properties of this drug were first reported shortly after its use; however, its psychomimetic effects have limited its use in emergency departments. Owing to the misuse and abuse of opioids in some countries worldwide, ketamine has become a versatile tool for sedation and analgesia. In this narrative review, ketamine's role as an analgesic is discussed, with both known and new applications in various contexts (acute, chronic, and neuropathic pain), along with its strengths and weaknesses, especially in terms of psychomimetic, cardiovascular, and hepatic effects. Moreover, new scientific evidence has been reviewed on the use of additional drugs with ketamine, such as magnesium infusion for improving analgesia and clonidine for treating psychomimetic symptoms. Finally, this narrative review was refined by the experience of the Pain Group of the Italian Society of Emergency Medicine (SIMEU) in treating acute and chronic pain with acute manifestations in Italian Emergency Departments.

Comparative evaluation of intranasal midazolam-ketamine, dexmedetomidine-ketamine, midazolam-fentanyl, and dexmedetomidine-fentanyl combinations for procedural sedation and analgesia in pediatric dental patients: a randomized controlled trial

Background

In order to assess the effectiveness of various analgesio-sedative combinations for pain relief and sedation in pediatric dental patients, a thorough evaluation of clinical studies and patient outcomes is necessary.

Methods

A total of 128 healthy, uncooperative pediatric dental patients were randomly allocated to receive one of the four combinations of drugs via the intranasal (IN) route: Group I received midazolam-ketamine (MK), Group II received dexmedetomidine-ketamine (DK), Group III received midazolam-fentanyl (MF), and Group IV received dexmedetomidine-fentanyl (DF) in a parallel-arm study design. The efficacy and safety of the combinations were evaluated using different parameters.

Results

The onset of sedation was significantly faster in the DF group than in the DK, MF, and MK groups (P < 0.001). The depth of sedation was significantly higher in the DK and DF groups than in the MK and MF groups (P < 0.01). DK and DF produced significant intra- and postoperative analgesia when compared with combinations of MK and MF. No significant adverse events were observed for any of the combinations.

Conclusions

The DK and DF groups showed potential as analgesio-sedatives in view of their anxiolytic and analgesic effects.

Intranasal Fentanyl for Acute Pain Management in Children, Adults and Elderly Patients in the Prehospital Emergency Service and in the Emergency Department: A Systematic Review

This systematic review examined the efficacy and safety of intranasal fentanyl (INF) for acute pain treatment in children, adults, and the elderly in prehospital emergency services (PHES) and emergency departments (ED). ClinicalTrials.gov, LILACS, PubMed, SCOPUS, EMBASE, Google Scholar and Cochrane databases were consulted until 31 December 2022. A total of 23 studies were included: 18 in children (1 PHES, 17 ED), 5 in adults (1 PHES, 4 ED) and 1 in older people (1 PHES subgroup analysis). In children, INF was effective in both settings and as effective as the comparator drugs, with no differences in adverse events (AEs); one randomised controlled trial (RCT) showed that INF was more effective than the comparator drugs. In adults, one study demonstrated the efficacy of INF in the PHES setting, one study demonstrated the efficacy of INF in the ED setting, two RCTs showed INF to be less effective than the comparator drugs and one RCT showed INF to be as effective as the comparator, with no difference in AEs reported. In older people, one study showed effective pain relief and no AEs. In summary, INF appears to be effective and safe in children and adults in PHES and ED. More high-quality studies are needed, especially in PHES and older people.

Les pratiques exemplaires pour l’évaluation et le traitement de la douleur chez les enfants

L’évaluation et le traitement de la douleur sont des aspects essentiels des soins pédiatriques. L’évaluation de la douleur adaptée au développement représente une première étape importante pour en optimiser la prise en charge. L’autoévaluation de la douleur est à prioriser. Si c’est impossible, des outils appropriés d’évaluation du comportement, adaptés au développement, doivent être utilisés. Des directives et stratégies de prise en charge et de prévention de la douleur aiguë, qui combinent des approches physiques, psychologiques et pharmacologiques, doivent être accessibles dans tous les milieux de soins. Le meilleur traitement de la douleur chronique fait appel à une combinaison de modalités thérapeutiques et de counseling, dans l’objectif premier d’obtenir une amélioration fonctionnelle. La planification et la mise en œuvre de stratégies de prise en charge de la douleur chez les enfants doivent toujours être personnalisées et axées sur la famille.

Best practices in pain assessment and management for children

Pain assessment and management are essential components of paediatric care. Developmentally appropriate pain assessment is an important first step in optimizing pain management. Self-reported pain should be prioritized. Alternatively, developmentally appropriate behavioural tools should be used. Acute pain management and prevention guidelines and strategies that combine physical, psychological, and pharmacological approaches should be accessible in all health care settings. Chronic pain is best managed using combined treatment modalities and counselling, with the primary goal of attaining functional improvement. The planning and implementation of pain management strategies for children should always be personalized and family-centred.

Novel uses of ketamine in the emergency department

INTRODUCTION

: Ketamine is gaining renewed interest among healthcare providers due to its novel clinical applications in the emergency department (ED) setting.

AREAS COVERED

: This article provides a comprehensive discussion of ketamine's pharmacological properties, including safety profile and adverse effects, in addition to an overview of current evidence for ketamine (racemic formulation) in the management of ED patients with acute agitation, pain, and depression/suicide ideation.

EXPERT OPINION

: Ketamine is an effective adjunct to opioids, providing greater pain relief than morphine alone. As an analgesic agent, administration of ketamine (0.1-0.3 mg/kg IV) alone can provide analgesia similar to that of morphine in patients with acute visceral and musculoskeletal pain. Moreover, ketamine provides equal analgesic efficacy to morphine in a variety of chronic painful conditions including pain associated with cancer, vaso-occlusive pain crisis associated with sickle cell disease, and in patients with high opioid tolerance and/or opioid dependency. Available literature shows that ketamine (1-2mg/kg IV or 4-5 mg/kg IM) is a safe, rapid (<5 minutes) and effective tranquilization agent for ED patients with acute agitation. Finally, there is growing evidence that suggests ketamine may have a potential utility in the management of patients with self-harm ideation or acute depressive episodes. Intravenous infusion of ketamine (0.5 mg/kg over 40 mins) has been shown to produce an antidepressant effect and decrease in suicidal ideation within 4 hours with effects lasting up to one week.

Clinical Interpretation of Self-Reported Pain Scores in Children with Acute Pain

OBJECTIVE

To identify self-reported pain scores that best represent categories of no pain, mild, moderate, and severe pain in children, and a pain score that accurately represents a child's perceived need for medication, that is, a minimum pain score at which a child would want an analgesic.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cross-sectional cohort study of children aged 6-17 years presenting to a pediatric emergency department with painful and nonpainful conditions. Pain was measured using the 10-point Verbal Numerical Rating Scale. Receiver operating characteristic -based methodology was used to determine pain scores that best differentiated no pain from mild pain, mild pain from moderate pain, and moderate pain from severe pain. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the perceived need for medication.

RESULTS

We analyzed data from 548 children (51.3% female, 61.9% with a painful condition). The scores that best represent categories of pain intensity are as follows: 0-1 for no pain; 2-5 for mild pain; 6-7 for moderate pain; and 8-10 for severe pain. The area under the curve for the cut points differentiating each category ranged from 0.76 to 0.88. The median pain score representing the perceived need for medication was 6 (IQR, 4-7; range, 0-10).

CONCLUSIONS

We identified population-level self-reported pain scores in children associated with categories of pain intensity that differ from scores conventionally used. Implementing our findings may provide a more accurate representation of the clinical meaning of pain scores and reduce selection bias in research. Our findings do not support the use of pain scores in isolation for clinical decision making or the use of a pain score threshold to represent a child's perceived need for medication.

Intranasal ketamine versus intranasal fentanyl on pain management in isolated traumatic patients

Background:

Given the inadequate control of pain in patients with the trauma that refer to the emergency departments, the rapid onset of action of intranasal administration in pain management, and the avoidance of administering opioid medications, the present study aimed at evaluating the effect of intranasal ketamine versus intranasal fentanyl on pain management in isolated traumatic patients.

Materials and Methods:

The current study was performed on 125 patients that were divided into the following three groups: control group (n = 41), 1 mg/kg intranasal ketamine group (n = 40), and 1 μg/kg intranasal fentanyl group (n = 44). Then pain scores, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation were recorded at baseline, 5, 10, 15, 30, and 40 min after the intervention.

Results:

Visual analog scale (VAS) scores of patients in the intranasal ketamine group 5 and 10 min after the intervention were 61.50 ± 20.45 and 55.00 ± 21.96, respectively. The mentioned scores were significantly lower than the VAS scores of patients in the control group with the mean of 72.44 ± 22.11 and 66.59 ± 24.25 and the VAS scores of patients in the intranasal fentanyl group with the mean of 71.59 ± 22.09 and 65.00 ± 22.87 at 5 and 10 min after the intervention, respectively (P < 0.05).

Conclusion:

Given the onset of action in < 10 min, intranasal ketamine can be proposed as an appropriate analgesic medication in pain reduction of patients with isolated limb injuries. Moreover, the incidence rate and severity of adverse effects were insignificantly higher in the intranasal ketamine group as compared with the intranasal fentanyl group.

Influence of ketamine versus fentanyl on pain relief for pediatric orthopedic emergencies: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies

INTRODUCTION

The comparison of ketamine with fentanyl for pain control of pediatric orthopedic emergencies remains controversial. We conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the influence of ketamine versus fentanyl on pain management among pediatric orthopedic emergencies.

METHODS

We have searched PubMed, EMbase, Web of science, EBSCO, and Cochrane library databases through September 2020 for randomized controlled trials assessing the effect of ketamine versus fentanyl on pain management for pediatric orthopedic emergencies.

RESULTS

Five randomized controlled trials are included in the meta-analysis. Overall, compared with fentanyl for pediatric orthopedic emergencies, ketamine led to similar change in pain scores at 15 to 20 minutes (standard mean difference = -0.05; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.38 to 0.28; P = .77) and 30 minutes (standard mean difference = 0.11; 95% CI = -0.20 to 0.42; P = .49), as well as rescue analgesia (RR = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.54 to 1.51; P = .69), but revealed the increase in nausea/vomiting (RR = 2.65; 95% CI = 1.13 to 6.18; P = .02) and dizziness (RR = 3.83; 95% CI = 1.38 to 10.60; P = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Ketamine may be similar to fentanyl in terms of the analgesic efficacy for pediatric orthopedic emergencies.

Early Opiate Analgesic Requirements Following Nonsurgically Managed Tibial Fractures in Children

BACKGROUND

Many children with tibial fractures are currently being managed as outpatients. It is unclear how much opiates should be prescribed to ensure adequate analgesia at home without overprescription. This study aimed to evaluate the risk factors for requiring opiates following admission for tibial fractures and to estimate opiate requirements for children being discharged directly from the emergency department (ED).

METHODS

All children aged 4 to 16 years admitted with closed tibial fractures being treated in a molded circumferential above-knee plaster cast between October 2015 and April 2020 were included. Case notes were reviewed to identify demographics, analgesic prescriptions, and complications. Risk factors were analyzed using logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 75 children were included, of which 64% were males. The mean age was 9.5 (SD 3.4) years. Opiates were required by 36 (48%) children in the first 24 hours following admission. The median number of opiate doses in the first 48 hours was 0 (range: 0 to 5), with 93% of children receiving ≤3 doses. The odds of requiring opiates in the first 24 hours were unchanged for age above 10 years [odds ratio (OR)=0.85, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.33-2.23], male sex (OR=1.58, 95% CI: 0.59-4.19), high-energy injury (OR=1.65, 95% CI: 0.45-6.04), presence of a fibula fracture (OR=2.21, 95% CI: 0.72-6.76), or need for fracture reduction in the ED (OR=0.57, 95% CI: 0.20-1.65). No children developed compartment syndrome, and the mean length of stay was 1.4 (SD 1.2) days. No children were readmitted following discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

We have found no cases of compartment syndrome or extensive requirement for opiates following closed tibial fractures treated in plaster cast. These children are candidates to be discharged directly from the ED. We have not identified any specific risk factors for the targeting of opiate analgesics. We recommend a guideline prescription of 6 doses of opiates for direct discharge from the ED to ensure adequate analgesia without overprescription.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV-case series.

The nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase Src participates in every step of cancer-induced bone pain

Cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP) is a refractory form of pain that has a high incidence in advanced tumors. Src protein tyrosine kinase is mainly composed of six domains, with two states of automatic inhibition and activation. The modular domain allows Src to conveniently regulate by and communicate with a variety of proteins, directly or indirectly participate in each step of the CIBP process. Src is beneficial to the growth and proliferation of tumor cells, and it can promote the metastases of primary tumors to bone. In the microenvironment of bone metastasis, it mainly mediates bone resorption, activates related peripheral receptors to participate in the formation of pain signals, and may promote the generation of pathological sensory nerve fibers. In the process of pain signal transmission, it mainly mediates NMDAR and central glial cells to regulate pain signal intensity and central sensitization, but it is not limited to these two aspects. Both basic experimentation and clinical research have shown encouraging potential, providing new ideas and inspiration for the prevention and treatment of CIBP.

Out-of-Hospital Ketamine: Indications for Use, Patient Outcomes, and Associated Mortality

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To describe out-of-hospital ketamine use, patient outcomes, and the potential contribution of ketamine to patient death.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated consecutive occurrences of out-of-hospital ketamine administration from January 1, 2019 to December 31, 2019 reported to the national ESO Data Collaborative (Austin, TX), a consortium of 1,322 emergency medical service agencies distributed throughout the United States. We descriptively assessed indications for ketamine administration, dosing, route, transport disposition, hypoxia, hypercapnia, and mortality. We reviewed cases involving patient death to determine whether ketamine could be excluded as a potential contributing factor.

RESULTS

Indications for out-of-hospital ketamine administrations in our 11,291 patients were trauma/pain (49%; n=5,575), altered mental status/behavioral indications (34%; n=3,795), cardiovascular/pulmonary indications (13%; n=1,454), seizure (2%; n=248), and other (2%; n=219). The highest median dose was for altered mental status/behavioral indications at 3.7 mg/kg (interquartile range, 2.2 to 4.4 mg/kg). Over 99% of patients (n=11,274) were transported to a hospital. Following ketamine administration, hypoxia and hypercapnia were documented in 8.4% (n=897) and 17.2% (n=1,311) of patients, respectively. Eight on-scene and 120 in-hospital deaths were reviewed. Ketamine could not be excluded as a contributing factor in 2 on-scene deaths, representing 0.02% (95% confidence interval 0.00% to 0.07%) of those who received out-of-hospital ketamine. Among those with in-hospital data, ketamine could not be excluded as a contributing factor in 6 deaths (0.3%; 95% confidence interval 0.1% to 0.7%).

CONCLUSION

In this large sample, out-of-hospital ketamine was administered for a variety of indications. Patient mortality was rare. Ketamine could not be ruled out as a contributing factor in 8 deaths, representing 0.07% of those who received ketamine.

Intranasal Ketamine for Acute Pain

OBJECTIVES

The aim was to review current evidence regarding the off-label use of intranasal ketamine for acute pain presenting in the setting of the emergency department, and secondary to pediatric limb injuries, renal colic, digital nerve block, and migraines.

RESULTS

In all 5 indications reviewed, ketamine demonstrated efficacy in reducing pain. However, when compared with other agents, ketamine did not demonstrate superiority over opioids in pediatric limb injuries or renal colic and was not as efficacious as standard therapy for migraine relief. Ketamine was also associated with a greater incidence of transient adverse reactions, such as dizziness, bitter aftertaste, fatigue, and vomiting than opioid therapies.

DISCUSSION

The current body of evidence is insufficient to support the use of intranasal ketamine over other standard therapies for acute pain. However, current evidence can be used when developing dosing strategies, preparing for adverse reactions, and generating hypotheses for future, more robust research.

Magnetic Double-J-Stent Removal Without General Anaesthesia in Children

OBJECTIVES

To show the feasibility of magnetic double-J-stent (mDJS) removal without general anaesthesia in infants and children.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of mDJS removals was conducted between February 2018 and July 2020 in a cohort of 32 consecutive paediatric patients. Only patients with unilateral ureteric stenting were included. Stent retrieval was performed in an outpatient setting. In males the junction of the retrieval-catheter and the mDJS was confirmed by transabdominal ultrasound. All patients were followed-up for 4-12 weeks after stent removal.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients (54% males) were included. Median age was 3.8 years (range 1 month - 15 years). Ureteral stents remained in place for a median of 67.5 days (range 2 days - 6 months). General anaesthesia was necessary in one single patient due to expressed patient's and caregiver's wish. Thirty-one patients had stent removal without need for general anaesthesia. Thereof, nitrous oxide was used in 12 patients (37.5%), fentanyl in 3 patients (9.4%), midazolam in 3 patients (9.4%), and 17 patients (53.1%) did not need sedation at all. Seven patients (21.9%) being 8 months or younger had received peroral saccharosis. No complications occurred during stent removal. Retrieval was successful at first catheterization in 30 patients (93.8%). Two male patients needed a second catheterization (6.3%).

CONCLUSION

The use of magnetic DJS is safe in the paediatric population and spares general anaesthesia during removal in almost all patients.

Intranasal drugs for analgesia and sedation in children admitted to pediatric emergency department: a narrative review

Acute pain is one of the most common symptoms in children admitted to the Pediatric Emergency Department (PED) and its management represents a real clinical challenge for pediatricians. Different painful procedures can be very stressful for young children and their perception of pain can be enhanced by emotional factors, such as anxiety, distress, or anger. Adequate procedural sedation reduces anxiety and emotional trauma for the patient, but it reduces also stress for operators and the time for procedures. We have reviewed the literature on this topic and the drugs covered in these papers were: midazolam, fentanyl, ketamine, and dexmedetomidine. There are several routes of administering for these drugs to provide analgesia and anxiolysis to children: oral, parenteral, or intranasal (IN). Intravenous (IV) sedation, since it involves the use of needles, can be stressful; instead, IN route is a non-invasive procedure and generally well tolerated by children and it has become increasingly widespread. Some medications can be administered by a mucosal atomizer device (MAD) or by drops. The benefits of the atomized release include less drug loss in the oropharynx, higher cerebrospinal fluid levels, better patient acceptability, and better sedative effects. IN midazolam has a sedative, anxiolytic and amnesic effect, but without analgesic properties. Fentanyl and ketamine are mainly used for pain control. Dexmedetomidine has anxiolytic and analgesic properties. In conclusion, IN analgo-sedation is a simple, rapid and painless option to treat pain and anxiety in the PED requiring brief training on the administration process and experience in sedation.

Intranasal ketamine for acute pain management in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety of intranasal analgesic-dose ketamine as compared to intranasal fentanyl for pediatric acute pain.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed following the PRISMA guidelines. We searched PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases for randomized controlled trials from inception to December 2019. We conducted meta-analysis with random-effects models to evaluate pain reduction, rescue analgesia, adverse events and sedation between intranasal ketamine and intranasal fentanyl. Random-effects models were used to estimate weighted mean differences (WMD) and pooled relative risks (RR).

RESULTS

A total of 546 studies were screened and 4 trials were included. In the meta-analysis of 4 studies including 276 patients, ketamine had similar reductions in pain scores from baseline to all post-intervention times (10 to 15 min: WMD -1.42, 95% CI -9.95 to 7.10; 30 min: WMD 0.40, 95% CI -6.29 to 7.10; 60 min: WMD -0.64, 95% CI -6.76 to 5.47). Ketamine was associated with similar rates of rescue analgesia (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.25). Ketamine had a higher risk of non-serious adverse events (RR 2.00, 95% CI 1.43 to 2.79), and no patients receiving ketamine had a serious adverse event. There was one serious adverse event (hypotension) with fentanyl that self-resolved. No patients receiving either IN fentanyl or ketamine had significant sedation.

CONCLUSION

Intranasal analgesic-dose ketamine may be considered as an alternative to opioids for acute pain management in children. Its accepted use will depend on the tolerability of non-serious adverse events and the desire to avoid opioids.

Intranasal Ketamine for Treatment of Acute Pain in Pediatrics: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Intranasal ketamine has not been well studied in acute pain treatment and does not have a recognized place in therapy in current practice guidelines for pediatric patients. Ketamine has a unique mechanism of action with a favorable side effect profile that may provide benefit to the pediatric population for acute pain. The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence evaluating intranasal ketamine versus any other comparator for children who require acute pain treatment.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed to include clinical studies of intranasal ketamine for acute pain that reported any pain-related outcome and adverse events in children 0 to 17 years old. Trials were identified through PubMed, Google Scholar, clinical trial registries, research registries, and key journals through April 2018. The Jadad scoring system was used to assess the methodological quality of the included randomized controlled trials.

RESULTS

Six studies consisting of 261 patients were reviewed. Intranasal ketamine demonstrated pain relief in all included clinical studies; however, there was inconsistency in dosing, comparators, scales, and indications. Two of the randomized controlled trials were rated as high quality, and 1 randomized controlled trial was rated as poor quality on the Jadad scale.

CONCLUSIONS

Intranasal ketamine was safe and effective in the 6 clinical studies included in this systematic review.

KEA-1010, a ketamine ester analogue, retains analgesic and sedative potency but is devoid of Psychomimetic effects

Background

Ketamine, a widely used anaesthetic and analgesic agent, is known to improve the analgesic efficacy of opioids and to attenuate central sensitisation and opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Clinical use is, however, curtailed by unwanted psychomimetic effects thought to be mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonism. KEA-1010, a ketamine ester-analogue designed for rapid offset of hypnosis through hydrolysis mediated break-down, has been shown to result in short duration sedation yet prolonged attenuation of nociceptive responses in animal models. Here we report on behavioural effects following KEA-1010 administration to rodents.

Methods

KEA-1010 was compared with racemic ketamine in its ability to produce loss of righting reflex following intravenous injection in rats. Analgesic activity was assessed in thermal tail flick latency (TFL) and paw incision models when injected acutely and when co-administered with fentanyl. Tail flick analgesic assessment was further undertaken in morphine tolerant rats. Behavioural aberration was assessed following intravenous injection in rats undergoing TFL assessment and in auditory pre-pulse inhibition models.

Results

KEA-1010 demonstrated an ED₅₀ similar to ketamine for loss of righting reflex following bolus intravenous injection (KEA-1010 11.4 mg/kg [95% CI 10.6 to 12.3]; ketamine (racemic) 9.6 mg/kg [95% CI 8.5–10.9]). Duration of hypnosis was four-fold shorter in KEA-1010 treated animals. KEA-1010 prolonged thermal tail flick responses comparably with ketamine when administered de novo, and augmented morphine-induced prolongation of tail flick when administered acutely. The analgesic effect of KEA-1010 on thermal tail flick was preserved in opioid tolerant rats. KEA-1010 resulted in increased paw-withdrawal thresholds in a rat paw incision model, similar in magnitude yet more persistent than that seen with fentanyl injection, and additive when co-administered with fentanyl. In contrast to ketamine, behavioural aberration following KEA-1010 injection was largely absent and no pre-pulse inhibition to acoustic startle was observed following KEA-1010 administration in rats.

Conclusions

KEA-1010 provides antinociceptive efficacy in acute thermal and mechanical pain models that augments standard opioid analgesia and is preserved in opioid tolerant rodents. The NMDA channel affinity and psychomimetic signature of the parent compound ketamine is largely absent for KEA-1010.

Evaluation of an oral analgesia protocol for upper-limb fracture reduction in the paediatric emergency department: Prospective study of 101 patients

BACKGROUND

Upper limb injuries are common in children. When required, closed fracture reduction can be performed in the emergency department without general anaesthesia but causes pain. The primary objective of this study was to assess an oral analgesia protocol for fracture reduction without general anaesthesia. The secondary objectives were to look for associations linking pain intensity to age, sex, and waiting time and to determine the frequency of secondary displacement requiring closed reduction or internal fixation under general anaesthesia at the 1-week follow-up visit.

HYPOTHESIS

An oral analgesia protocol combining a loading dose of morphine with other medications would provide sufficient pain control to obviate the need for general anaesthesia.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A prospective observational single-centre study was conducted over a 15-month period (July 2017-October 2018) in consecutive patients younger than 16 years who required reduction of a displaced upper-limb fracture. All patients received the same oral combination of paracetamol (15mg/kg), ibuprofen (7.5-10mg/kg), and a loading morphine dose (0.5mg/kg, up to 20mg) 1hour before the procedure. Patients given morphine more than 2hours before the procedure and those with persistent pain were given an additional morphine dose (0.2mg/kg, up to 10mg). An equimolar mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide was administered during reduction. An appropriate scale was used to measure pain intensity before, during, and 15minutes after the procedure. Cases of secondary displacement requiring further reduction or internal fixation under general anaesthesia at the 1-week follow-up visit were recorded.

RESULTS

The 101 study patients (73 male and 28 female) had a mean age of 9.4 years (range, 2-15 years). Mean pain scores were 5.0±2.6 at admission and 2.1±2.3, 2.6±3.3, and 1.3±2.2 before, during, and after reduction, respectively. Pain intensity during reduction was significantly associated with age. The analgesia was deemed satisfactory by 94 patients and 90 parents. General anaesthesia for further treatment was required in 10 (9.9%) patients, either on the day after the initial treatment, due to inadequate reduction (n=8), or at the 1-week visit, due to secondary displacement (n=2).

DISCUSSION

Oral morphine in a sufficient dosage given in combination with other medications was effective and well tolerated when used to control pain during upper-limb fracture reduction. Pain intensity was not significantly associated with sex. In contrast, pain was significantly more severe in the patients older than 10 years of age. The proportions of patients requiring further reduction or internal fixation were consistent with previously published data. Most patients and parents were satisfied with the analgesia protocol.

CONCLUSION

A multimodal oral analgesia protocol provides sufficient pain relief to allow closed reduction of upper-limb fractures in children at the emergency department. This management strategy provided high satisfaction rates in both the patients and their parents.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II, prospective observational study.

Comparative Effectiveness of Analgesics to Reduce Acute Pain in the Prehospital Setting

Objectives: The objectives of this study were to assess comparative effectiveness and harms of opioid and nonopioid analgesics for the treatment of moderate to severe acute pain in the prehospital setting. Methods: We searched MEDLINE^®, Embase^®, and Cochrane Central from the earliest date through May 9, 2019. Two investigators screened abstracts, reviewed full-text files, abstracted data, and assessed study level risk of bias. We performed meta-analyses when appropriate. Conclusions were made with consideration of established clinically important differences and we graded each conclusion's strength of evidence (SOE). Results: We included 52 randomized controlled trials and 13 observational studies. Due to the absence or insufficiency of prehospital evidence we based conclusions for initial analgesia on indirect evidence from the emergency department setting. As initial analgesics, there is no evidence of a clinically important difference in the change of pain scores with opioids vs. ketamine administered primarily intravenously (IV) (low SOE), IV acetaminophen (APAP) (low SOE), or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) administered primarily IV (moderate SOE). The combined use of an opioid and ketamine, administered primarily IV, may reduce pain more than an opioid alone at 15 and 30 minutes (low SOE). Opioids may cause fewer adverse events than ketamine (low SOE) when primarily administered intranasally. Opioids cause less dizziness than ketamine (low SOE) but may increase the risk of respiratory depression compared with ketamine (low SOE), primarily administered IV. Opioids cause more dizziness (moderate SOE) and may cause more adverse events than APAP (low SOE), both administered IV, but there is no evidence of a clinically important difference in hypotension (low SOE). Opioids may cause more adverse events and more drowsiness than NSAIDs (low SOE), both administered primarily IV. Conclusions: As initial analgesia, opioids are no different than ketamine, APAP, and NSAIDs in reducing acute pain in the prehospital setting. Opioids may cause fewer total side effects than ketamine, but more than APAP or NSAIDs. Combining an opioid and ketamine may reduce acute pain more than an opioid alone but comparative harms are uncertain. When initial morphine is inadequate, giving ketamine may provide greater and quicker acute pain relief than giving additional morphine, although comparative harms are uncertain. Due to indirectness, strength of evidence is generally low, and future research in the prehospital setting is needed.

Current Evidence for Acute Pain Management of Musculoskeletal Injuries and Postoperative Pain in Pediatric and Adolescent Athletes

OBJECTIVE

Sports-related injuries in young athletes are increasingly prevalent with an estimated 2.6 million children and adolescents sustaining a sports-related injury annually. Acute sports-related injuries and surgical correction of sports-related injuries cause physical pain and psychological burdens on pediatric athletes and their families. This article aims to evaluate current acute pain management options in pediatric athletes and acute pain management strategies for postoperative pain after sports-related injuries. This article will also elucidate which areas of pain management for pediatric athletes are lacking evidence and help direct future clinical trials.

DATA SOURCES

We conducted a literature search through PubMed and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials to provide an extensive review of initial and postoperative pain management strategies for pediatric sports-related musculoskeletal injuries.

MAIN RESULTS

The current knowledge of acute pain management for initial sports-related injuries, postoperative pain management for orthopedic surgeries, as well as complementary and alternative medical therapies in pediatric sports-related injuries is presented. Studies evaluating conservative management, enteral and nonenteral medications, regional anesthesia, and complementary medical therapies are included.

CONCLUSIONS

Adequate pain management is important for sports injuries in children and adolescents for emotional as well as physical healing, but a balance must be achieved to provide acceptable pain relief while minimizing opioid use and side effects from analgesic medications. More studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of nonopioid analgesic medications and complementary therapies in pediatric patients with acute sports-related injuries.

Randomized clinical trial on the efficacy of intranasal or oral ketamine-midazolam combinations compared to oral midazolam for outpatient pediatric sedation

Purpose

The optimal sedative regime that provides the greatest comfort and the lowest risk for procedural sedation in young children remains to be determined. The aim of this randomized, blinded, controlled, parallel-design trial was to evaluate the efficacy of intranasal ketamine and midazolam as the main component of the behavioral guidance approach for preschoolers during dental treatment.

Materials and methods

Children under seven years of age, with caries and non-cooperative behavior, were randomized into three groups: (KMIN) intranasal ketamine and midazolam; (KMO) oral ketamine and midazolam; or (MO) oral midazolam. The dental sedation appointments were videotaped, and the videos were analyzed using the Ohio State University Behavioral Rating Scale (OSUBRS) to determine the success of the sedation in each group. Intra- and postoperative adverse events were recorded. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests (P < 0.05, IBM SPSS).

Results

Participants were 84 children (28 per group; 43 boys), with a mean age of 3.1 years (SD 1.2). Children’s baseline and the dental sedation session characteristics were balanced among groups. The success of the treatment as assessed by the dichotomous variable ‘quiet behavior for at least 60% of the session length’ was: KMIN 50.0% (n = 14; OR 2.10, 95% CI 0.71 to 6.30), KMO 46.4% (n = 13; OR 1.80, 95% CI 0.62 to 5.40), MO 32.1% (n = 9) (P = 0.360). Adverse events were minor, occurred in 37 of 84 children (44.0%), and did not differ among groups (P = 0.462).

Conclusion

All three regimens provided moderate dental sedation with minor adverse events, with marked variability in the behavior of children during dental treatment. The potential benefit of the ketamine–midazolam combination should be further investigated in studies with larger samples.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02447289. Registered on 11 May 2015, named “Midazolam and Ketamine Effect Administered Through the Nose for Sedation of Children for Dental Treatment (NASO).”

Using Modern Neuroscience to Inform Opioid Use and Abuse Liability in Adolescents

Opioid abuse and overdosing have reached epidemic status in the United States, and this epidemic has profound negative effects on the lives of adolescents and their families. A combination of readily available opioids (including illicit opioids, such as heroin, and overprescribed prescription opioid-based painkillers) and an abuse vulnerability inherent to adolescence drives the problem. The pharmacology of opioids in the context of adolescent brain neurobiology helps explain the enhanced vulnerability to drug abuse experienced by the young. This report overviews these topics as they relate to orthopaedic procedures employed for adolescent patients.

Effect of Intranasal Ketamine vs Fentanyl on Pain Reduction for Extremity Injuries in Children: The PRIME Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Timely analgesia is critical for children with injuries presenting to the emergency department, yet pain control efforts are often inadequate. Intranasal administration of pain medications provides rapid analgesia with minimal discomfort. Opioids are historically used for significant pain from traumatic injuries but have concerning adverse effects. Intranasal ketamine may provide an effective alternative.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether intranasal ketamine is noninferior to intranasal fentanyl for pain reduction in children presenting with acute extremity injuries.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

The Pain Reduction With Intranasal Medications for Extremity Injuries (PRIME) trial was a double-blind, randomized, active-control, noninferiority trial in a pediatric, tertiary, level 1 trauma center. Participants were children aged 8 to 17 years presenting to the emergency department with moderate to severe pain due to traumatic limb injuries between March 2016 and February 2017. Analyses were intention to treat and began in May 2017.

INTERVENTIONS

Intranasal ketamine (1.5 mg/kg) or intranasal fentanyl (2 µg/kg).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was reduction in visual analog scale pain score 30 minutes after intervention. The noninferiority margin for this outcome was 10.

RESULTS

Of 90 children enrolled, 45 (50%) were allocated to ketamine (mean [SD] age, 11.8 [2.6] years; 26 boys [59%]) and 45 (50%) to fentanyl (mean [SD] age, 12.2 [2.3] years; 31 boys [74%]). Thirty minutes after medication, the mean visual analog scale reduction was 30.6 mm (95% CI, 25.4-35.8) for ketamine and 31.9 mm (95% CI, 26.6-37.2) for fentanyl. Ketamine was noninferior to fentanyl for pain reduction based on a 1-sided test of group difference less than the noninferiority margin, as the CIs crossed 0 but did not cross the prespecified noninferiority margin (difference in mean pain reduction between groups, 1.3; 90% CI, -6.2 to 8.7). The risk of adverse events was higher in the ketamine group (relative risk, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.5-4.0), but all events were minor and transient. Rescue analgesia was similar between groups (relative risk, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.5-1.6).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Ketamine provides effective analgesia that is noninferior to fentanyl, although participants who received ketamine had an increase in adverse events that were minor and transient. Intranasal ketamine may be an appropriate alternative to intranasal fentanyl for pain associated with acute extremity injuries. Ketamine should be considered for pediatric pain management in the emergency setting, especially when opioids are associated with increased risk.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02778880.

Essential pharmacologic options for acute pain management in the emergency setting

Pain is the root cause for the overwhelming majority of emergency department (ED) visits worldwide. However, pain is often undertreated due to inappropriate analgesic dosing and ineffective utilization of available analgesics. It is essential for emergency providers to understand the analgesic armamentarium at their disposal and how it can be used safely and effectively to treat pain of every proportion within the emergency setting. A 'balanced analgesia' regimen may be used to treat pain while reducing the overall pharmacologic side effect profile of the combined analgesics. Channels-Enzymes-Receptors Targeted Analgesia (CERTA) is a multimodal analgesic strategy incorporating balanced analgesia by shifting from a system-based to a mechanistic-based approach to pain management that targets the physiologic pathways involved in pain signaling transmission. Targeting individual pain pathways allows for a variety of reduced-dose pharmacologic options - both opioid and non-opioid - to be used in a stepwise progression of analgesic strength as pain advances up the severity scale. By developing a familiarity with the various analgesic options at their disposal, emergency providers may formulate safe, effective, balanced analgesic combinations unique to each emergency pain presentation.

Treatment of pain with intranasal fentanyl in pediatric patients in an acute care setting: a systematic review

AIM

The primary objective of this review is to provide an updated, comprehensive overview on the efficacy of intranasal fentanyl (INF) for acute pain relief in the pediatric population.

METHODS

Utilizing the Preferred Reporting Instructions for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), we were able to screen articles based on key words to reach a final number of 10 studies.

RESULTS

All but one study showed that INF was efficacious for pain relief in this select pediatric population.

CONCLUSION

It is evident that INF is efficacious for analgesia, but other agents should also be considered in this patient population. As a result, further research is needed to investigate the clinically efficacy of INF in an acute care setting for pediatric patients.