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Lal B, Alonso-Caneiro D, Read SA, Carkeet A. Repeatability of retinal and choroidal optical coherence tomography angiography indices in healthy children and young adults. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2024. [PMID: 38923564 DOI: 10.1111/opo.13357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the repeatability of retinal and choroidal optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) indices among healthy children and compare it to healthy young adults. METHODS This prospective study captured 3 mm × 3 mm and 6 mm × 6 mm macular OCT-A scans including superficial and deep retinal layers, choriocapillaris and deep choroid over two visits, 1 week apart at approximately the same time of day, for 22 healthy adults (18-30 years) and 21 children (6-15 years). Magnification and projection-artefact corrected indices extracted using a custom image analysis program and individual biometry were compared between visits using Bland-Altman analysis and intraclass correlation (ICC). Retinal indices included foveal avascular zone metrics, perfusion and vessel density and choroidal indices included choriocapillaris flow deficit metrics and deep choroid perfusion density, in the foveal, parafoveal and perifoveal regions. Repeatability between adults and children was compared with F-test. RESULTS Bland-Altman analysis showed that the mean differences between repeated OCT-A indices were not significantly different from zero for either of the zones, layers and scan sizes in the two age groups (p > 0.05) except for foveal vessel density and foveal avascular zone perimeter (p = 0.04 for both) of 6-mm-deep retinal layer scans. The ICC ranged between 0.67 and 0.99. Significantly higher variability between visits (p < 0.05) in the indices was noted among adults than children, especially for choroidal indices of larger scan size. CONCLUSION The retinal and choroidal OCT-A indices in the foveal, parafoveal and perifoveal zones were repeatable in healthy children except for the foveal vessel density and foveal avascular zone perimeter of the 6-mm-deep retinal layer, which exhibited statistically borderline differences between visits. The adult group showed more variability between visits compared to children, especially in the larger scan size for choroidal OCT-A indices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barsha Lal
- Centre for Vision and Eye Research, Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Alonso-Caneiro
- Centre for Vision and Eye Research, Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Scott A Read
- Centre for Vision and Eye Research, Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrew Carkeet
- Centre for Vision and Eye Research, Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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2
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Beach JM, Shoemaker B, Eckert GJ, Harris A, Siesky B, Arciero JC. Potential measurement error from vessel reflex and multiple light paths in dual-wavelength retinal oximetry. Acta Ophthalmol 2024; 102:e367-e380. [PMID: 37786359 PMCID: PMC10987395 DOI: 10.1111/aos.15776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aims to characterize the dependence of measured retinal arterial and venous saturation on vessel diameter and central reflex in retinal oximetry, with an ultimate goal of identifying potential causes and suggesting approaches to improve measurement accuracy. METHODS In 10 subjects, oxygen saturation, vessel diameter and optical density are obtained using Oxymap Analyzer software without diameter correction. Diameter dependence of saturation is characterized using linear regression between measured values of saturation and diameter. Occurrences of negative values of vessel optical densities (ODs) associated with central vessel reflex are acquired from Oxymap Analyzer. A conceptual model is used to calculate the ratio of optical densities (ODRs) according to retinal reflectance properties and single and double-pass light transmission across fixed path lengths. Model-predicted values are compared with measured oximetry values at different vessel diameters. RESULTS Venous saturation shows an inverse relationship with vessel diameter (D) across subjects, with a mean slope of -0.180 (SE = 0.022) %/μm (20 < D < 180 μm) and a more rapid saturation increase at small vessel diameters reaching to over 80%. Arterial saturation yields smaller positive and negative slopes in individual subjects, with an average of -0.007 (SE = 0.021) %/μm (20 < D < 200 μm) across all subjects. Measurements where vessel brightness exceeds that of the retinal background result in negative values of optical density, causing an artifactual increase in saturation. Optimization of model reflectance values produces a good fit of the conceptual model to measured ODRs. CONCLUSION Measurement artefacts in retinal oximetry are caused by strong central vessel reflections, and apparent diameter sensitivity may result from single and double-pass transmission in vessels. Improvement in correction for vessel diameter is indicated for arteries however further study is necessary for venous corrections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Shoemaker
- Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - George J Eckert
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Alon Harris
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mt. Sinai, New York, USA
| | - Brent Siesky
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mt. Sinai, New York, USA
| | - Julia C Arciero
- Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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3
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Hirsch K, Cubbidge RP, Heitmar R. Dual wavelength retinal vessel oximetry - influence of fundus pigmentation. Eye (Lond) 2023; 37:2246-2251. [PMID: 36460856 PMCID: PMC9716545 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-022-02325-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clinical methods examining oxygenation parameters in humans have been used in many different care settings, but concerns have been raised regarding their clinical utility when assessing people with darker skin pigmentation. While saturation values can be crucial in emergency medicine, they are equally valuable in assessing disease mechanisms and monitoring change in disease progression. Retinal pigmentation varies across individuals and hence, can impact on retinal oxygen parameters. The objective of this study was to quantify and eliminate the impact of retinal pigmentation on retinal vessel oxygen saturation parameters measured in the superficial retinal arterioles and venules. METHODS 105 healthy individuals of varying skin colour, iris colour and heritage were included. Following a full eye exam to exclude any ocular abnormality, all participants underwent intraocular pressure, systemic blood pressure measurements and dilated dual wavelength retinal photography. Rotation matrices were employed to minimise the dependency of retinal pigmentation on arterial and venous oxygen saturation measurements determined in a concentric measurement annulus. RESULTS Retinal oxygen saturation in venules showed a linear correlation with retinal pigmentation (y = 0.34 × x + 38.598), whereas arterial saturation followed a polynomial pattern (y = 0.0089 × x2 + 0.7499 × x + 85.073). Both arterial and venous saturation values were corrected using local fundus pigmentation. Pre-correction retinal arterial and venous oxygen saturation were 89.0% (±13.1) and 43.7% (±11.5), respectively, and post- correction values were 94.8% (±8.7) for arteries and 56.3% (±7.0) veins. CONCLUSIONS When assessing multi-ethnic cohorts, it is important to consider the impact of pigmentation on imaging parameters and to account for it prior to clinical interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Hirsch
- The University of the West of England, School of Health and Social Wellbeing, Glenside Campus, Bristol, BS16 1DD, UK.
| | - Robert P Cubbidge
- ABDO College, Godmersham Park, Canterbury, Kent, CT4 7DT, UK
- Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK
| | - Rebekka Heitmar
- University of Huddersfield, School of Applied Sciences, Centre for Vision across the Life Span, Queensgate, HD1 3DH, UK.
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Diem C, Türksever C, Todorova MG. The Presence of Hyperreflective Foci Reflects Vascular, Morphologic and Metabolic Alterations in Retinitis Pigmentosa. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13112034. [PMID: 36360271 PMCID: PMC9690312 DOI: 10.3390/genes13112034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The presence of hyperreflective foci (HRF) in retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a potentially new finding. We investigated the presence of HRF in SD-OCT images in eyes with RP and its relation to vascular, morphologic and metabolic findings in RP. Methods: The study was performed on 42 RP patients and 24 controls. Using SD-OCT, we calculated the amount of HRF within the entire retina (HRF-ER) and the outer nuclear layer (HRF-ONL). Retinal vessel diameters (μm) and oxygen saturation (%) values were measured using Oxymap T1. We evaluated the mean diameter in retinal arterioles (D-A) and venules (D-V), the corresponding oxygen saturation values (A-SO2, V-SO2) and the oxygen saturation difference (A-V SO2). Results: RP differed from controls by HRF-ER, HRF-ON and EZ-length (p < 0.001). D-A and D-V were narrower and A-SO2 and V-SO2 were higher in RP (p ≤ 0.001). Within RP, significant interactions were found between the HRF-ER* group and: BCVA, EZ length, D-A, A-SO2 and A-V SO2 (p ≤ 0.018). The HRF-ONL* group interactions were significant for: BCVA, EZ length, D-A, A-SO2 and A-V SO2 (p ≤ 0.014). Conclusion: The present study highlights the presence of HRF to reflect the vascular, morphologic and metabolic alterations in RP. These biomarkers seem to be associated with remodeling and apoptosis that occur with the progression of degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clemens Diem
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, 9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Margarita G. Todorova
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, 9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zürich, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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Král M, Svrčinová T, Hok P, Dorňák T, Rybáriková M, Mareš J, Kaňovský P, Šín M. Correlation between retinal oxygen saturation and the haemodynamic parameters of the ophthalmic artery in healthy subjects. Acta Ophthalmol 2022; 100:e1489-e1495. [PMID: 35599335 PMCID: PMC9790634 DOI: 10.1111/aos.15189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of the study was to obtain the values of oxygen saturation in retinal vessels and ophthalmic blood flow parameters in a healthy Caucasian population and assess whether the oximetry parameters are affected by the flow rate or the vascular resistance. METHODS The spectrophotometric retinal oximetry and colour Doppler imaging (CDI) of retinal vessels were successfully performed with 52 healthy subjects (average age 29.7 ± 5.6 years). The retinal oximeter simultaneously measures the wavelength difference of haemoglobin oxygen saturation in retinal arterioles and venules. The arteriolar and venular saturation in both eyes was measured. The peak systolic (PSV) end diastolic (EDV) velocities, resistive (RI) and pulsatility (PI) indices were obtained for both eyes using CDI in the ophthalmic artery. A paired t-test and two sample t-tests were used for statistical analyses. The correlation was assessed using the Pearson coefficient correlation. RESULTS The mean oxygen saturation level was 96.9 ± 3.0% for the retinal arterioles and 65.0 ± 5.1% for the retinal venules. The A-V difference was 31.8 ± 4.6%. The mean of the measured haemodynamic parameters was PSV 46.6 ± 9.4 cm/s, EDV 12.0 ± 3.5 cm/s, PI 1.68 ± 0.38 and RI 0.74 ± 0.05. No significant difference in oxygen saturation and haemodynamic parameters was found between the left and the right eyes or the dominant and non-dominant eye. The oximetry and ultrasound values were sex independent. The Pearson correlation coefficient demonstrated a significant yet weak negative correlation between A-V difference and RI (r = -0.321, p = 0.020). CONCLUSIONS A negative correlation between A-V difference and resistance index was observed, suggesting that reduced oxygen consumption may reflect the increased vascular tone of the ophthalmic vessels, which is likely determined by autoregulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Král
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Tereza Svrčinová
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Pavel Hok
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Tomáš Dorňák
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Martina Rybáriková
- Department of OphthalmologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Jan Mareš
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Petr Kaňovský
- Department of NeurologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
| | - Martin Šín
- Department of OphthalmologyUniversity Hospital and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University OlomoucOlomoucCzech Republic
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Abstract
Similar to other organs, the retina relies on tightly regulated perfusion and oxygenation. Previous studies have demonstrated that retinal blood flow is affected in a variety of eye and systemic diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma. Although measurement of peripheral oxygen saturation has become a standard clinical measurement through the development of pulse oximetry, developing a noninvasive technique to measure retinal oxygen saturation has proven challenging, and retinal oximetry technology currently remains inadequate for reliable clinical use. Here, we review current strategies and approaches, as well as several newer technologies in development, and discuss the future of retinal oximetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupam K Garg
- Shiley Eye Institute, Viterbi Family Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Darren Knight
- Shiley Eye Institute, Viterbi Family Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Leonardo Lando
- Shiley Eye Institute, Viterbi Family Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Daniel L Chao
- Shiley Eye Institute, Viterbi Family Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Janssen Research and Development, Raritan, NJ, USA
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7
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della Volpe Waizel M, Scholl HPN, Valmaggia C, Todorova MG. Retinal vessel oximetry in children with inherited retinal diseases. Acta Ophthalmol 2021; 99:52-60. [PMID: 32573052 DOI: 10.1111/aos.14466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinal vessel oximetry (RO) has been used to show altered metabolic function in patients with inherited retinal diseases (IRDs). The aim of this study was to investigate RO parameters of children with IRDs and presumed IRD carriers (pIRDc) and to compare them to controls. METHODS In this cross-sectional cohort study, 142 eyes from 71 Caucasian subjects were included: 40 eyes with IRDs, 26 eyes with pIRDc and 76 control eyes. The oxygen saturation was measured with the Retinal Vessel Analyser (IMEDOS Systems UG, Jena, Germany). Mean oxygen saturations in the peripapillary retinal arterioles (A-SO2 ; %) and venules (V-SO2 ; %) were estimated, and their difference (A-V SO2 ; %) was calculated. In addition, we evaluated the mean diameter in all major retinal arterioles (D-A; μm) and venules (D-V; μm). anova-based linear mixed-effects models were calculated with SPSS® . RESULTS In general, children suffering from IRDs differed from controls when the A-SO2 and A-V SO2 were taken into account: both the A-SO2 and the A-V SO2 were significantly increased (p = 0.012). In subgroup analyses, children suffering from rod-cone dystrophy (RCD) presented an A-SO2 increase (99.12 ± 8.24%) when compared to controls (91.33 ± 10.34%, p = 0.014) and pIRDc (92.37 ± 6.57%, p = 0.065). For V-SO2 significant changes in RCD (67.42 ± 9.19%) were found in comparison with controls (58.24 ± 11.74%, p < 0.041), pIRDc (56.67 ± 7.16%, p = 0.007), cone-rod dystrophies (CRD, 52.17 ± 5.32%, p < 0.001) and inherited macular dystrophies (IMD, 55.74 ± 6.96%, p = 0.004), In addition, A-V SO2 was decreased in RCD (31.69 ± 3.92%) when measured against CRD (41.9 ± 8.87%, p = 0.017) or IMD (39.52 ± 8.95%, p = 0.059). CONCLUSION In general, we found that children with IRDs presented early metabolic changes. Within IRDs, children with RCD showed more affected metabolic changes. Thus, RO may support early screening to rule out IRDs in children, and more precisely may help to differentiate those suffering from RCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria della Volpe Waizel
- Department of Ophthalmology University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel (IOB) Basel Switzerland
| | - Hendrik P. N. Scholl
- Department of Ophthalmology University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel (IOB) Basel Switzerland
| | - Christophe Valmaggia
- Department of Ophthalmology University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - Margarita G. Todorova
- Department of Ophthalmology University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen St. Gallen Switzerland
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8
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della Volpe Waizel M, Türksever C, Todorova MG. Influence of cataract light scatters on retinal vessel oxygen saturation. Acta Ophthalmol 2020; 98:e56-e62. [PMID: 31654499 DOI: 10.1111/aos.14200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of our study was to compare metabolic (oxygen saturation; %) and anatomical parameters (retinal vessel diameter; μm) of retinal vessel oximetry (RO) in patients with cataract formation against those of healthy controls with clear lenses. METHODS A total of 96 eyes of 62 subjects were examined: 51 eyes from 33 cataract patients (mean age: 64.8y) were compared to 45 eyes from 29 controls with clear lenses (mean age: 61.5y). RO was performed with the oxygen saturation measurement tool from the RVA (IMEDOS Systems UG). The oxygen saturation in all major peripapillary retinal arterioles (A-SO2 ) and venules (V-SO2 ) was measured, and their difference (A-V SO2 ) was calculated. In addition, the corresponding diameter in retinal arterioles (D-A) and venules (D-V) was evaluated. Cataract formation was graded according to the Lens Opacities Classification System III (LOCS III). Oximetry data were compared with the grade of cataract formation within both groups. For statistical evaluation, anova-based linear mixed-effects models were calculated (spss® , pairwise comparisons: Bonferroni-corrected; p < 0.05). RESULTS Cataract eyes showed significantly lower A-SO2 and A-V SO2 values (mean ± SD 92.52 ± 9.80% and 28.56 ± 9.80%), when compared to healthy controls (95.47 ± 4.48% and 34.8 ± 7.08%; p = 0.046 and p = 0.001). Within the cataract group, cortical opacities showed significant interactions with the A-SO2 , V-SO2 and the A-V SO2 parameters (p = 0.027; p = 0.002; and p = 0.026, respectively). CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that the cataract-induced light scatter influences optical retinal oxygen measurements. Cortical opacities showed the highest influence on RO measurement when compared to nuclear opacification, nuclear colour and posterior cataract formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria della Volpe Waizel
- Department of Ophthalmology University Hospital Basel Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Cengiz Türksever
- University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- VISTA Klinik Binningen Switzerland
| | - Margarita G. Todorova
- Department of Ophthalmology University Hospital Basel Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel Basel Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen St. Gallen Switzerland
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Della Volpe-Waizel M, Traber GL, Maloca P, Zinkernagel M, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Rubin G, Roska B, Otto T, Weleber RG, Scholl HPN. New Technologies for Outcome Measures in Retinal Disease: Review from the European Vision Institute Special Interest Focus Group. Ophthalmic Res 2019; 63:77-87. [PMID: 31352462 DOI: 10.1159/000501887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Novel diagnostic tools to measure retinal function and structure are rapidly being developed and introduced into clinical use. Opportunities exist to use these informative and robust measures as endpoints for clinical trials to determine efficacy and to monitor safety of therapeutic interventions. In order to inform researchers and clinician-scientists about these new diagnostic tools, a workshop was organized by the European Vision Institute. Invited speakers highlighted the recent advances in state-of-the-art technologies for outcome measures in the field of retina. This review highlights the workshop's presentations in the context of published literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Della Volpe-Waizel
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology (IOB), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ghislaine L Traber
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology (IOB), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peter Maloca
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology (IOB), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Zinkernagel
- Department of Ophthalmology and Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Gary Rubin
- UCL University College London, Institute of Ophthalmology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Botond Roska
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology (IOB), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tilman Otto
- Heidelberg Engineering GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Richard G Weleber
- Casey Eye Institute, Departments of Ophthalmology and Molecular and Medical Genetics, University of Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Hendrik P N Scholl
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland, .,Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology (IOB), Basel, Switzerland,
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10
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Retinal oximetry: Metabolic imaging for diseases of the retina and brain. Prog Retin Eye Res 2019; 70:1-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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