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Hassan SZ, Sabet SS, Riegler MA, Baugerud GA, Ko H, Salehi P, Røed RK, Johnson M, Halvorsen P. Enhancing investigative interview training using a child avatar system: a comparative study of interactive environments. Sci Rep 2023; 13:20403. [PMID: 37989758 PMCID: PMC10663561 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-47368-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The impact of investigative interviews by police and Child Protective Services (CPS) on abused children can be profound, making effective training vital. Quality in these interviews often falls short and current training programs are insufficient in enabling adherence to best practice. We present a system for simulating an interactive environment with alleged abuse victims using a child avatar. The purpose of the system is to improve the quality of investigative interviewing by providing a realistic and engaging training experience for police and CPS personnel. We conducted a user study to assess the efficacy of four interactive platforms: VR, 2D desktop, audio, and text chat. CPS workers and child welfare students rated the quality of experience (QoE), realism, responsiveness, immersion, and flow. We also evaluated perceived learning impact, engagement in learning, self-efficacy, and alignment with best practice guidelines. Our findings indicate VR as superior in four out of five quality aspects, with 66% participants favoring it for immersive, realistic training. Quality of questions posed is crucial to these interviews. Distinguishing between appropriate and inappropriate questions, we achieved 87% balanced accuracy in providing effective feedback using our question classification model. Furthermore, CPS professionals demonstrated superior interview quality compared to non-professionals, independent of the platform.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael Alexander Riegler
- Department of Holistic Systems, SimulaMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, OsloMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Hayley Ko
- Faculty of Social Sciences, OsloMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
- Oral Health Centre of Expertise in Eastern Norway, 0369, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pegah Salehi
- Department of Holistic Systems, SimulaMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Pål Halvorsen
- Department of Holistic Systems, SimulaMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, OsloMet, 0167, Oslo, Norway
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Røed RK, Powell MB, Riegler MA, Baugerud GA. A field assessment of child abuse investigators' engagement with a child-avatar to develop interviewing skills. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2023; 143:106324. [PMID: 37390589 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Child investigative interviewing is a complex skill requiring specialised training. A critical training element is practice. Simulations with digital avatars are cost-effective options for delivering training. This study of real-world data provides novel insights evaluating a large number of trainees' engagement with LiveSimulation (LiveSim), an online child-avatar that involves a trainee selecting a question (i.e., an option-tree) and the avatar responding with the level of detail appropriate for the question type. While LiveSim has been shown to facilitate learning of open-ended questions, its utility (from a user engagement perspective) remains to be examined. OBJECTIVE We evaluated trainees' engagement with LiveSim, focusing on patterns of interaction (e.g., amount), appropriateness of the prompt structure, and the programme's technical compatibility. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING Professionals (N = 606, mainly child protection workers and police) being offered the avatar as part of an intensive course on how to interview a child conducted between 2009 and 2018. METHODS For descriptive analysis, Visual Basic for Applications coding in Excel was applied to evaluate engagement and internal attributes of LiveSim. A compatibility study of the programme was run testing different hardware focusing on access and function. RESULTS The trainees demonstrated good engagement with the programme across a variety of measures, including number and timing of activity completions. Overall, knowing the utility of avatars, our results provide strong support for the notion that a technically simple avatar like LiveSim awake user engagement. This is important knowledge in further development of learning simulations using next-generation technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragnhild Klingenberg Røed
- Department of Social Work, Child Welfare and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Sciences, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Martine B Powell
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Gunn Astrid Baugerud
- Department of Social Work, Child Welfare and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Sciences, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
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Røed RK, Baugerud GA, Hassan SZ, Sabet SS, Salehi P, Powell MB, Riegler MA, Halvorsen P, Johnson MS. Enhancing questioning skills through child avatar chatbot training with feedback. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1198235. [PMID: 37519386 PMCID: PMC10374201 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1198235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Training child investigative interviewing skills is a specialized task. Those being trained need opportunities to practice their skills in realistic settings and receive immediate feedback. A key step in ensuring the availability of such opportunities is to develop a dynamic, conversational avatar, using artificial intelligence (AI) technology that can provide implicit and explicit feedback to trainees. In the iterative process, use of a chatbot avatar to test the language and conversation model is crucial. The model is fine-tuned with interview data and realistic scenarios. This study used a pre-post training design to assess the learning effects on questioning skills across four child interview sessions that involved training with a child avatar chatbot fine-tuned with interview data and realistic scenarios. Thirty university students from the areas of child welfare, social work, and psychology were divided into two groups; one group received direct feedback (n = 12), whereas the other received no feedback (n = 18). An automatic coding function in the language model identified the question types. Information on question types was provided as feedback in the direct feedback group only. The scenario included a 6-year-old girl being interviewed about alleged physical abuse. After the first interview session (baseline), all participants watched a video lecture on memory, witness psychology, and questioning before they conducted two additional interview sessions and completed a post-experience survey. One week later, they conducted a fourth interview and completed another post-experience survey. All chatbot transcripts were coded for interview quality. The language model's automatic feedback function was found to be highly reliable in classifying question types, reflecting the substantial agreement among the raters [Cohen's kappa (κ) = 0.80] in coding open-ended, cued recall, and closed questions. Participants who received direct feedback showed a significantly higher improvement in open-ended questioning than those in the non-feedback group, with a significant increase in the number of open-ended questions used between the baseline and each of the other three chat sessions. This study demonstrates that child avatar chatbot training improves interview quality with regard to recommended questioning, especially when combined with direct feedback on questioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragnhild Klingenberg Røed
- Department of Social Work, Child Welfare and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Science, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Gunn Astrid Baugerud
- Department of Social Work, Child Welfare and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Science, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Syed Zohaib Hassan
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Saeed S. Sabet
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
- Simula Metropolitan Center for Digital Engineering, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pegah Salehi
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Martine B. Powell
- Center for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Pål Halvorsen
- Simula Metropolitan Center for Digital Engineering, Oslo, Norway
| | - Miriam S. Johnson
- Department of Behavioral Science, Faculty of Health Science, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
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Zumbach J, Brubacher SP, Davis F, de Ruiter C, Ireland JL, McNamara K, October M, Saini M, Volbert R, Laajasalo T. International perspective on guidelines and policies for child custody and child maltreatment risk evaluations: A preliminary comparative analysis across selected countries in Europe and North America. Front Psychol 2022; 13:900058. [PMID: 36275299 PMCID: PMC9586013 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.900058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Little knowledge exists on how evaluators in child custody and child maltreatment cases are informed by guidelines, the kinds of qualifications required and the types of training provided in different countries. The purpose of this paper is to provide an international preliminary comparison on how child custody and child maltreatment risk assessments are conducted in selected Western countries, and how the assessments are informed by best practice guidelines. Another aim is to increase knowledge on how the guidelines and best-practice standards could be developed further to reflect recent research findings. A total number of 18 guidelines were included in the analyses: four from Canada, five from the United States, three from the United Kingdom, three from the Netherlands, two from Finland, and one from Germany. We conducted a content analysis of the included guidelines in the database, focusing on how the guidelines address the best interest of the child criteria, guidelines for conducting the assessments, considerations for evaluative criteria, and specific guidance for conducting specific assessment procedures (e.g., interviews and observations). Findings show that the qualifications of and training provided to evaluators in child custody and child maltreatment risk evaluations are largely heterogeneous across the countries represented. Guidelines differ in whether and how they highlight the importance of evidence-based practices and scientifically validated assessment measures. Implications are drawn from the review and contextualized by international expert authors in the fields of forensic psychology, and family law. After the content analysis, discussion sessions within the expert group were held. The authors provide both commentaries and suggestions to improve the development of standard methods for conducting both child custody and child maltreatment risk evaluations and to consider a more transparent and judicious use of social science research to guide methods and the recommendations offered within these assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Zumbach
- Psychologische Hochschule Berlin, Berlin, Germany,*Correspondence: Jelena Zumbach,
| | - Sonja P. Brubacher
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Frank Davis
- Association of Family and Conciliation Courts California Chapter, Oakland, CA, United States
| | - Corine de Ruiter
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Martta October
- Special Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michael Saini
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Renate Volbert
- Psychologische Hochschule Berlin, Berlin, Germany,Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Forensic Psychiatry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Taina Laajasalo
- Special Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland,Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Fulton C. The hidden, manipulated, and secret information world of gambling addiction: Maximizing use of in-depth, narrative interviews to understand social impact. LIBRARY & INFORMATION SCIENCE RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lisr.2022.101193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Powell MB, Brubacher SP, Baugerud GA. An overview of mock interviews as a training tool for interviewers of children. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2022; 129:105685. [PMID: 35662685 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Mock (simulated) interviews can be used as a safe context for trainee interviewers to learn and practice questioning skills. When mock interviews are designed to reflect the body of scientific evidence on how questioning skills are best learned, research has demonstrated that interviewers acquire relevant and enduring skills. Despite the importance of this exercise in learning interview skill and its prevalence as a learning tool in other fields such as medicine and allied health, there has been relatively little discussion about mock interviews from an educational perspective in investigative interview training. This paper addresses that gap by providing the first comprehensive overview of the way mock interviews have been used in training interviewers of children. We describe the research that supports their utility, and the various ways they can be implemented in training: providing insight to learners; allowing opportunities for practice, feedback, and discussion; and as a standardized way to assess skill change over time. The paper also includes an overview of the cutting-edge use of avatars in mock interviews to enhance efficiency, provide unique learning experiences, and ultimately reduce training costs. We explain why avatars may be particularly useful in basic training, freeing up human trainers to facilitate mock interviews around advanced topics and discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine B Powell
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Sonja P Brubacher
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Gunn Astrid Baugerud
- Department of Social Work, Child Welfare and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Science, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
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Leach CL, Brown F, Pryor L, Powell M, Harden S. Eliciting an offence narrative: what types of questions do forensic mental health practitioners ask? PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND LAW : AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOLOGY AND LAW 2022; 30:536-552. [PMID: 37484508 PMCID: PMC10360986 DOI: 10.1080/13218719.2022.2059029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Maximising the accuracy and detail of information elicited through a clinical-forensic interview may increase the reliability and validity of an individual's assessment. Despite this, there is little empirical research on what questions forensic mental health practitioners employ, and whether these correspond with empirically established interviewing strategies. In this study, 22 forensic mental health practitioners participated in a mock interview of a young person referred for a sexual risk assessment. The results highlighted that participants asked very few 'open' questions, over-relied on 'specific' questions and an average of 13% of questions were leading. Finally, practitioners predominantly used 'yes/no' questions when exploring the young person's thoughts, feelings, and physiological responses. Overall, the study demonstrated that empirically supported interviewing techniques were not commonly employed and highlighted the need for further professional development and training around clinical forensic interviewing strategies that best elicit the information needed to inform risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea L. Leach
- Forensic Child and Youth Mental Health Service, Children’s Health Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Francesca Brown
- Forensic Child and Youth Mental Health Service, Children’s Health Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Luke Pryor
- Forensic Child and Youth Mental Health Service, Children’s Health Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Martine Powell
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Scott Harden
- Forensic Child and Youth Mental Health Service, Children’s Health Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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8
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Synthesizing a Talking Child Avatar to Train Interviewers Working with Maltreated Children. BIG DATA AND COGNITIVE COMPUTING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/bdcc6020062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
When responding to allegations of child sexual, physical, and psychological abuse, Child Protection Service (CPS) workers and police personnel need to elicit detailed and accurate accounts of the abuse to assist in decision-making and prosecution. Current research emphasizes the importance of the interviewer’s ability to follow empirically based guidelines. In doing so, it is essential to implement economical and scientific training courses for interviewers. Due to recent advances in artificial intelligence, we propose to generate a realistic and interactive child avatar, aiming to mimic a child. Our ongoing research involves the integration and interaction of different components with each other, including how to handle the language, auditory, emotional, and visual components of the avatar. This paper presents three subjective studies that investigate and compare various state-of-the-art methods for implementing multiple aspects of the child avatar. The first user study evaluates the whole system and shows that the system is well received by the expert and highlights the importance of its realism. The second user study investigates the emotional component and how it can be integrated with video and audio, and the third user study investigates realism in the auditory and visual components of the avatar created by different methods. The insights and feedback from these studies have contributed to the refined and improved architecture of the child avatar system which we present here.
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Hope L, Anakwah N, Antfolk J, Brubacher SP, Flowe H, Gabbert F, Giebels E, Kanja W, Korkman J, Kyo A, Naka M, Otgaar H, Powell MB, Selim H, Skrifvars J, Sorkpah IK, Sowatey EA, Steele LC, Stevens L, Sumampouw NEJ, Taylor PJ, Trevino‐Rangel J, van Veldhuizen T, Wang J, Wells S. Urgent issues and prospects at the intersection of culture, memory, and witness interviews: Exploring the challenges for research and practice. LEGAL AND CRIMINOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 27:1-31. [DOI: 10.1111/lcrp.12202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/15/2024]
Abstract
AbstractThe pursuit of justice increasingly relies on productive interactions between witnesses and investigators from diverse cultural backgrounds during investigative interviews. To date, the role of cultural context has largely been ignored by researchers in the field of investigative interviewing, despite repeated requests from practitioners and policymakers for evidence‐based guidance for the conduct of interviews with people from different cultures. Through examining cultural differences in human memory and communication and considering specific contextual challenges for investigative interviewing through the lens of culture, this review and associated commentaries highlight the scope for considering culture and human diversity in research on, and the practice of, investigative interviewing with victims, witnesses, and other sources. Across 11 commentaries, contributors highlight the importance of considering the role of culture in different investigative interviewing practices (e.g., rapport building, questioning techniques) and contexts (e.g., gender‐based violence, asylum seeking, child abuse), address common areas of cultural mismatch between interviewer–interviewee expectations, and identify critical future routes for research. We call for an increased focus in the investigative interviewing literature on the nature and needs of our global community and encourage constructive and collaborative discussion between researchers and practitioners from around the world to better identify specific challenges and work together towards evidence‐based solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorraine Hope
- Department of Psychology University of Portsmouth Portsmouth UK
| | - Nkansah Anakwah
- Department of Psychology University of Portsmouth Portsmouth UK
- Faculty of Law, Criminal Law and Criminology Maastricht University Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Jan Antfolk
- Faculty of Humanities, Psychology and Theology Åbo Akademi University Turku Finland
| | - Sonja P. Brubacher
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing Griffith Criminology Institute Griffith University Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - Heather Flowe
- School of Psychology University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | | | | | | | - Julia Korkman
- Faculty of Humanities, Psychology and Theology Åbo Akademi University Turku Finland
| | - Akira Kyo
- Law School Kwansei Gakuin University Nishinomiya Japan
| | - Makiko Naka
- Department of Comprehensive Psychology Ritsumeikan University Kyoto Japan
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience Maastricht University Maastricht The Netherlands
- Leuven Institute of Criminology Catholic University of Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Martine B. Powell
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing Griffith Criminology Institute Griffith University Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - Hedayat Selim
- Faculty of Humanities, Psychology and Theology Åbo Akademi University Turku Finland
| | - Jenny Skrifvars
- Faculty of Humanities, Psychology and Theology Åbo Akademi University Turku Finland
| | | | - Emmanuel A. Sowatey
- Institute of Criminology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Visiting lecturer, Police Academy Accra Ghana
| | | | - Laura Stevens
- School of Psychology University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Nathanael E. J. Sumampouw
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience Maastricht University Maastricht The Netherlands
- Faculty of Psychology Universitas Indonesia Kota Depok Indonesia
| | - Paul J. Taylor
- University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands
- Department of Psychology University of Lancaster Lancaster UK
| | | | - Tanja van Veldhuizen
- Department of Criminal Law and Criminology Free University Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Simon Wells
- Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats Lancaster UK
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Brubacher SP, van Doore KE, Powell M. Responding to orphanage trafficking from an information gathering perspective. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2021; 120:105222. [PMID: 34364174 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Estimates suggest that close to 3 million institutionalized children internationally have some family to whom they could go home. A proportion of these children is recruited from their communities under false pretenses and has false documentation that describes them as legal orphans. The orphanages where they live exploit them on the basis of their orphanhood. These children are known as paper orphans. The aim of the current article is to provide a profile of their origins and networks based on current available evidence, from an investigative interviewing perspective. Increased discussion and research of this problem will assist in supporting efforts towards reunification of children with families, investigations by law enforcement into orphanages, and successful prosecution of orphanage trafficking. The article provides an overview of the orphanage trafficking context, followed by a comparison of orphanage trafficking victims with other child trafficking victims from the perspective of investigative needs. Investigative needs are outlined with respect to two primary groups who would interview paper orphans and other involved parties (e.g., birth parents, orphanage staff)-law enforcement and reunification officers. In the final section of the article, we encourage further research on orphanage trafficking and provide initial guidance for interviewing in this unique context. This paper serves as a step to raise further awareness of paper orphans, orphanage trafficking, and the specific characteristics of their cases that affect research and planning into how to identify and interview them and others involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja P Brubacher
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, QLD, Australia.
| | | | - Martine Powell
- Centre for Investigative Interviewing, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, QLD, Australia
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Henderson HM, Lyon TD. Children's Signaling of Incomprehension: The Diagnosticity of Practice Questions During Interview Instructions. CHILD MALTREATMENT 2021; 26:95-104. [PMID: 33176442 DOI: 10.1177/1077559520971350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Forensic interviewers are routinely advised to instruct children that they should indicate when they do not understand a question. This study examined whether administering the instruction with a practice question may help interviewers identify the means by which individual children signal incomprehension. We examined 446 interviews with children questioned about abuse, including 252 interviews in which interviewers administered the instruction with a practice question (4- to 13-year-old children; Mage = 7.7). Older children more often explicitly referred to incomprehension when answering the practice question and throughout the interviews, whereas younger children simply requested repetition or gave "don't know" responses, and individual children's responses to the practice questions predicted their responses later in the interviews. Similarly, older children were more likely to seek confirmation of their understanding of interviewers' questions and to request specification. The results highlight the need for interviewers to test and closely monitor younger children's responses for ambiguous signs of incomprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas D Lyon
- 5116University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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