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Chatzilakou E, Hu Y, Jiang N, Yetisen AK. Biosensors for melanoma skin cancer diagnostics. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 250:116045. [PMID: 38301546 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Skin cancer is a critical global public health concern, with melanoma being the deadliest variant, correlated to 80% of skin cancer-related deaths and a remarkable propensity to metastasize. Despite notable progress in skin cancer prevention and diagnosis, the limitations of existing methods accentuate the demand for precise diagnostic tools. Biosensors have emerged as valuable clinical tools, enabling rapid and reliable point-of-care (POC) testing of skin cancer. This review offers insights into skin cancer development, highlights essential cutaneous melanoma biomarkers, and assesses the current landscape of biosensing technologies for diagnosis. The comprehensive analysis in this review underscores the transformative potential of biosensors in revolutionizing melanoma skin cancer diagnosis, emphasizing their critical role in advancing patient outcomes and healthcare efficiency. The increasing availability of these approaches supports direct diagnosis and aims to reduce the reliance on biopsies, enhancing POC diagnosis. Recent advancements in biosensors for skin cancer diagnosis hold great promise, with their integration into healthcare expected to enhance early detection accuracy and reliability, thereby mitigating socioeconomic disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Chatzilakou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BU, UK
| | - Yubing Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BU, UK.
| | - Nan Jiang
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China; JinFeng Laboratory, Chongqing, 401329, China.
| | - Ali K Yetisen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BU, UK.
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2
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Chen H, Zhu MZ, Wang XT, Ai M, Li SS, Wan MY, Wang PY, Cai WW, Hou B, Xu F, Lang F, Qiu LY, Zhou YT. 1,25(OH) 2 D 3 inhibits Lewis lung cancer cell migration via NHE1-sensitive metabolic reprograming. IUBMB Life 2024; 76:182-199. [PMID: 37921568 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
High prevalence and metastasis rates are characteristics of lung cancer. Glycolysis provides energy for the development and metastasis of cancer cells. The 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2 D3 ) has been linked to reducing cancer risk and regulates various physiological functions. We hypothesized that 1,25(OH)2 D3 could be associated with the expression and activity of Na+ /H+ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) of Lewis lung cancer cells, thus regulating glycolysis as well as migration by actin reorganization. Followed by online public data analysis, Vitamin D3 receptor, the receptor of 1,25(OH)2 D3 has been proved to be abundant in lung cancers. We demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2 D3 treatment suppressed transcript levels, protein levels, and activity of NHE1 in LLC cells. Furthermore, 1,25(OH)2 D3 treatment resets the metabolic balance between glycolysis and OXPHOS, mainly including reducing glycolytic enzymes expression and lactate production. In vivo experiments showed the inhibition effects on tumor growth as well. Therefore, we concluded that 1,25(OH)2 D3 could amend the NHE1 function, which leads to metabolic reprogramming and cytoskeleton reconstruction, finally inhibits the cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chen
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei-Zhen Zhu
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi-Ting Wang
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Ai
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
- Laboratory Animal Center of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuang-Shuang Li
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Seventh People's Hospital, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming-Yu Wan
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei-Yao Wang
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei-Wei Cai
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Bao Hou
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Xu
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Florian Lang
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Li-Ying Qiu
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue-Tao Zhou
- Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
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Koch A, Hofschröer V, Schwab A. Na + /H + exchanger NHE1 is active at cell-cell contacts and facilitates cell dissemination during collective migration of melanoma cells. Exp Dermatol 2024; 33:e14983. [PMID: 38009253 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Tumour cell detachment from the primary tumour is an early and crucial step of the metastatic cascade. At the single cell level, it was already shown that migrating melanoma cells establish both intra- and extracellular pH gradients and that the Na+ /H+ exchanger NHE1 accumulates at the leading edges to strengthen cell-matrix interactions. However, less is known about the role of NHE1 in collective cell migration and the specific pH microenvironment at tumour cell-cell contacts. We used MV3 melanoma cells transfected with a NHE1-expressing vector or a control vector. NHE1 localization at cell-cell contacts was assessed via immunofluorescence imaging. Collective migration was analysed by live-cell imaging. The NHE1 activity and the perimembranous pH were measured both intra- and extracellularly by ratiometric fluorescence microscopy. NHE1 clearly localizes at cell-cell contacts. Its overexpression further increases migratory speed and translocation in multidirectional pathway analyses. NHE1 overexpressing MV3 cells also move further away from their neighbouring cells during wound closure assays. pH measurements revealed that the NHE1 is highly active at cell-cell contacts of melanoma cells. NHE1-mediated pH dynamics at such contact sites are more prominent in NHE1-overexpressing melanoma cells. Our findings highlight the contribution of the NHE1 towards modulation and plasticity of melanoma cell-cell contacts. We propose that its localization and functional activity at cell-cell contacts promotes evasion of single melanoma cells from the primary tumour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Koch
- Institute of Physiology II, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Albrecht Schwab
- Institute of Physiology II, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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Hypoxia and Extracellular Acidification as Drivers of Melanoma Progression and Drug Resistance. Cells 2021; 10:cells10040862. [PMID: 33918883 PMCID: PMC8070386 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia and elevated extracellular acidification are prevalent features of solid tumors and they are often shown to facilitate cancer progression and drug resistance. In this review, we have compiled recent and most relevant research pertaining to the role of hypoxia and acidification in melanoma growth, invasiveness, and response to therapy. Melanoma represents a highly aggressive and heterogeneous type of skin cancer. Currently employed treatments, including BRAF V600E inhibitors and immune therapy, often are not effective due to a rapidly developing drug resistance. A variety of intracellular mechanisms impeding the treatment were discovered. However, the tumor microenvironment encompassing stromal and immune cells, extracellular matrix, and physicochemical conditions such as oxygen level or acidity, may also influence the therapy effectiveness. Hypoxia and acidification are able to reprogram the metabolism of melanoma cells, enhance their survival and invasiveness, as well as promote the immunosuppressive environment. For this reason, these physicochemical features of the melanoma niche and signaling pathways related to them emerge as potential therapeutic targets.
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Grieco C, Kohl FR, Hanes AT, Kohler B. Probing the heterogeneous structure of eumelanin using ultrafast vibrational fingerprinting. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4569. [PMID: 32917892 PMCID: PMC7486937 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18393-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Eumelanin is a brown-black biological pigment with sunscreen and radical scavenging functions important to numerous organisms. Eumelanin is also a promising redox-active material for energy conversion and storage, but the chemical structures present in this heterogeneous pigment remain unknown, limiting understanding of the properties of its light-responsive subunits. Here, we introduce an ultrafast vibrational fingerprinting approach for probing the structure and interactions of chromophores in heterogeneous materials like eumelanin. Specifically, transient vibrational spectra in the double-bond stretching region are recorded for subsets of electronic chromophores photoselected by an ultrafast excitation pulse tuned through the UV-visible spectrum. All subsets show a common vibrational fingerprint, indicating that the diverse electronic absorbers in eumelanin, regardless of transition energy, contain the same distribution of IR-active functional groups. Aggregation of chromophores diverse in oxidation state is the key structural property underlying the universal, ultrafast deactivation behavior of eumelanin in response to photoexcitation with any wavelength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Grieco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | - Forrest R Kohl
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | - Alex T Hanes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | - Bern Kohler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA.
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Pethő Z, Najder K, Carvalho T, McMorrow R, Todesca LM, Rugi M, Bulk E, Chan A, Löwik CWGM, Reshkin SJ, Schwab A. pH-Channeling in Cancer: How pH-Dependence of Cation Channels Shapes Cancer Pathophysiology. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E2484. [PMID: 32887220 PMCID: PMC7565548 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12092484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue acidosis plays a pivotal role in tumor progression: in particular, interstitial acidosis promotes tumor cell invasion, and is a major contributor to the dysregulation of tumor immunity and tumor stromal cells. The cell membrane and integral membrane proteins commonly act as important sensors and transducers of altered pH. Cell adhesion molecules and cation channels are prominent membrane proteins, the majority of which is regulated by protons. The pathophysiological consequences of proton-sensitive ion channel function in cancer, however, are scarcely considered in the literature. Thus, the main focus of this review is to highlight possible events in tumor progression and tumor immunity where the pH sensitivity of cation channels could be of great importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Pethő
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Karolina Najder
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Tiago Carvalho
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 90126 Bari, Italy; (T.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | - Roisin McMorrow
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, 3035 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (R.M.); (C.W.G.M.L.)
| | - Luca Matteo Todesca
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Micol Rugi
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Etmar Bulk
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Alan Chan
- Percuros B.V., 2333 CL Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Clemens W. G. M. Löwik
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, 3035 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (R.M.); (C.W.G.M.L.)
- Department of Oncology CHUV, UNIL and Ludwig Cancer Center, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stephan J. Reshkin
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 90126 Bari, Italy; (T.C.); (S.J.R.)
| | - Albrecht Schwab
- Institute of Physiology II, University Münster, 48147 Münster, Germany; (K.N.); (L.M.T.); (M.R.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
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Pelegrino MT, Paganotti A, Seabra AB, Weller RB. Photochemistry of nitric oxide and S-nitrosothiols in human skin. Histochem Cell Biol 2020; 153:431-441. [PMID: 32162135 PMCID: PMC7300104 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-020-01858-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is related to a wide range of physiological processes such as vasodilation, macrophages cytotoxicity and wound healing. The human skin contains NO precursors (NOx). Those are mainly composed of nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), and S-nitrosothiols (RSNOs) which forms a large NO store. These NOx stores in human skin can mobilize NO to blood stream upon ultraviolet (UV) light exposure. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the most effective UV light wavelength to generate NO and compare it to each NO precursor in aqueous solution. In addition, the UV light might change the RSNO content on human skin. First, we irradiated pure aqueous solutions of NO2- and NO3- and mixtures of NO2- and glutathione and NO3- and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) to identify the NO release profile from those species alone. In sequence, we evaluated the NO generation profile on human skin slices. Human skin was acquired from redundant plastic surgical samples and the NO and RSNO measurements were performed using a selective NO electrochemical sensor. The data showed that UV light could trigger the NO generation in skin with a peak at 280-285 nm (UVB range). We also observed a significant RSNO formation in irradiated human skin, with a peak at 320 nm (UV region) and at 700 nm (visible region). Pre-treatment of the human skin slice using NO2- and thiol (RSHs) scavengers confirmed the important role of these molecules in RSNO formation. These findings have important implications for clinical trials with potential for new therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena T Pelegrino
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Universidade Federal Do ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, CEP 09210-580, Brazil
| | - André Paganotti
- Laboratory of Materials and Mechanical Manufacture, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, SP, Brazil
| | - Amedea B Seabra
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Universidade Federal Do ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, SP, CEP 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Richard B Weller
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
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Massonneau J, Lacombe-Burgoyne C, Boissonneault G. pH-induced variations in the TK1 gene model. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2020; 849:503128. [PMID: 32087849 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.503128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A physiological decrease in extracellular pH (pHe) alters the efficiency of DNA repair and increases formation of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Whether this could translate into genetic instability and variations, was investigated using the TK6 cell model, in which positive selection of the TK1 gene loss-of-function mutations can be achieved from resistance to trifluorothymidine. Cell exposure to suboptimal pH (down to 6.9) for 3 weeks resulted in the 100 % frequency of a stronger frameshift mutation that has spread to both TK1 alleles, whereas weaker frameshift mutations within the 3'exon were eliminated during the selection. Suboptimal pHe values were also found to alter the proportion of the TK1 splicing variant expressed as percent spliced in index values and promote selection of truncated exons as well as intron retention. Although recovery at pH 7.4 did not reverse the selected frameshift mutation, reversal of splice variants and exon truncation towards control values were observed. Hence, suboptimal pHe can induce a combination of mutational events and splicing alterations within the same gene in the resistant clones. This model of positive selection for loss-of-function clearly demonstrates that suboptimal pHe may confer a similar growth advantage when such instability occurs within tumor suppressor genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Massonneau
- Dept of Biochemistry and Functional Genomics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Chloë Lacombe-Burgoyne
- Dept of Biochemistry and Functional Genomics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Guylain Boissonneault
- Dept of Biochemistry and Functional Genomics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.
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Kurata T, Rajendran V, Fan S, Ohta T, Numata M, Fushida S. NHE5 regulates growth factor signaling, integrin trafficking, and degradation in glioma cells. Clin Exp Metastasis 2019; 36:527-538. [PMID: 31595389 PMCID: PMC6834540 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-019-10001-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Na+/H+ exchanger 5 (NHE5) is enriched in neurons and cycles between recycling endosomes and plasma membranes and transports protons to the endosomal lumen as well as to the extracellular space. Although NHE5 expression is undetectable in normal astrocytes, C6 glioma cells express NHE5 at an elevated level. Using C6 cells as a model, here we demonstrate that NHE5 has an important role in tumor growth and tumor cell proliferation and invasion. Glioma xenografts originating from NHE5-knockdown cells exhibited significantly slower growth than those from NHE1-knockdown cells and control cells. Histological characterization of the migration front of NHE5-knockdown tumors revealed a less invasive and less proliferative appearance than NHE1-knockdown and control tumors. NHE5-knockdown but not NHE1-knockdown led to downregulation of fetal bovine serum (FBS)-induced MET and EGFR signaling. Moreover, depletion of NHE5 but not NHE1 reduced the ability of cells to spread on collagen. We found that NHE5 depletion greatly abrogated endocytic recycling and the protein stability of β1-integrin, which in part accounted for the defective cell adhesion, spreading, and invasion of NHE5-knockdown cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Kurata
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takara-machi, Kanazawa, 920-8641, Japan
| | - Vinotheni Rajendran
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Steven Fan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Tetsuo Ohta
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takara-machi, Kanazawa, 920-8641, Japan
| | - Masayuki Numata
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Sachio Fushida
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takara-machi, Kanazawa, 920-8641, Japan.
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Yang OCY, Loh SH. Acidic Stress Triggers Sodium-Coupled Bicarbonate Transport and Promotes Survival in A375 Human Melanoma Cells. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6858. [PMID: 31048755 PMCID: PMC6497716 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43262-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma cells preserve intracellular pH (pHi) within a viable range despite an acidic ambient pH that typically falls below pH 7.0. The molecular mechanisms underlying this form of acidic preservation in melanoma remain poorly understood. Previous studies had demonstrated that proton transporters including the monocarboxylate transporter (MCT), the sodium hydrogen exchanger (NHE), and V-Type ATPase mediate acid extrusion to counter intracellular acidification in melanoma cells. In this report, the expression and function of the Sodium-Coupled Bicarbonate Transporter (NCBT) family of base loaders were further characterized in melanoma cell lines. NCBT family members were found to be expressed in three different melanoma cell lines – A375, MeWo, and HS695T – and included the electrogenic sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter isoforms 1 and 2 (NBCe1 and NBCe2), the electroneutral sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCn1), and the sodium-dependent chloride-bicarbonate exchanger (NDCBE). These transporters facilitated 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid (DIDS)-dependent pHi recovery in melanoma cells, in response to intracellular acidification induced by ammonium chloride prepulse. Furthermore, the expression of NCBTs were upregulated via chronic exposure to extracellular acidification. Given the current research interest in the NCBTs as a molecular driver of tumourigenesis, characterising NCBT in melanoma provides impetus for developing novel therapeutic targets for melanoma treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar C Y Yang
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, United Kingdom.,Department of Pharmacology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Hurng Loh
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, United Kingdom. .,Department of Pharmacology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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