Pharmacokinetics and safety of fluconazole and micafungin in neonates with systemic candidiasis: a randomized, open-label clinical trial

Perspectives on the Use of Echinocandins in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

The neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) population, especially low birth weight and critically ill neonates, is at risk of invasive Candida infections, which are associated with high mortality rates and unfavorable long-term outcomes. The timely initiation of an appropriate antifungal treatment has been demonstrated to enhance the prognosis. Factors that should be considered in the choice of an antifungal agent include the causative Candida strain, the presence and location of deep tissue infection, any previous use of antifungal prophylaxis, and the presence of implanted devices. Amphotericin B and fluconazole, the first-line drugs for neonatal candidiasis, are not always suitable due to several limitations in terms of efficacy and adverse effects. Therefore, alternative antifungals have been studied and used in neonates when conventional antifungals are ineffective or contraindicated. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the current literature regarding the use of echinocandins in the neonatal population. The three echinocandins, micafungin, caspofungin, and anidulafungin, share characteristics that make them useful for the treatment of neonatal candidiasis, including activity against a wide range of Candida strains and Candida biofilms and a favorable safety profile.

Evaluation of Population Pharmacokinetic Models of Micafungin: Implications for Dosing Regimen Optimization in Critically Ill Patients

Micafungin (MFG) is a widely used echinocandin antifungal agent for treating invasive candidiasis, particularly in critically ill patients. However, its pharmacokinetics can be highly variable in this population. This systematic review aims to summarize population pharmacokinetic models and provide recommendations for its use in intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Monte Carlo simulations were implemented to compare pharmacokinetic parameters and probability of target attainment (PTA) against various Candida species. A total of 16 studies were included, of which 6 studies were conducted in adult ICU patients. The key covariates were body size, liver function, and sepsis-related organ failure assessment score (SOFA) score. The median MFG clearance in adult ICU patients was 30-51% higher than in adult non-ICU patients. For infections with C. albican with MIC below 0.016 mg/L, micafungin dosages of 100 and 150 mg/d were recommended for adult non-ICU and ICU patients, respectively. For C. tropicalis and C. glabrata, 200 and 250 mg/d were recommended, respectively. However, for C. krusei and C. parapsilosis, none of the tested dosage regimens achieved assumed PTA criteria within MIC ranges of 0.125-0.25 mg/L and 0.125-2 mg/L, respectively. Therefore, MFG dosage regimens in ICU and non-ICU patients should be tailored based on the Candida spp. and their respective MIC values.

Antibiotics, Analgesic Sedatives, and Antiseizure Medications Frequently Used in Critically Ill Neonates: A Narrative Review

Antibiotic, analgesic sedative, and antiseizure medications are among the most commonly used medications in preterm/sick neonates, who are at high risk of nosocomial infections, central nervous system complications, and are exposed to numerous painful/stressful procedures. These severe and potentially life-threatening complications may have serious short- and long-term consequences and should be prevented and/or promptly treated. The reported variability in the medications used in neonates indicates the lack of adequate neonatal studies regarding their effectiveness and safety. Important obstacles contributing to inadequate studies in preterm/sick infants include difficulties in obtaining parental consent, physicians' unwillingness to recruit preterm infants, the off-label use of many medications in neonates, and other scientific and ethical concerns. This review is an update on the use of antimicrobials (antifungals), analgesics (sedatives), and antiseizure medications in neonates, focusing on current evidence or knowledge gaps regarding their pharmacokinetics, indications, safety, dosage, and evidence-based guidelines for their optimal use in neonates. We also address the effects of early antibiotic use on the intestinal microbiome and its association with long-term immune-related diseases, obesity, and neurodevelopment (ND). Recommendations for empirical treatment and the emergence of pathogen resistance to antimicrobials and antifungals are also presented. Finally, future perspectives on the prevention, modification, or reversal of antibiotic resistance are discussed.

Neonatal invasive candidiasis in low- and middle-income countries: Data from the NeoOBS study

Neonatal invasive candidiasis (NIC) has significant morbidity and mortality. Reports have shown a different profile of those neonates affected with NIC and of fluconazole-resistant Candida spp. isolates in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income countries (HICs). We describe the epidemiology, Candida spp. distribution, treatment, and outcomes of neonates with NIC from LMICs enrolled in a global, prospective, longitudinal, observational cohort study (NeoOBS) of hospitalized infants <60 days postnatal age with sepsis (August 2018-February 2021). A total of 127 neonates from 14 hospitals in 8 countries with Candida spp. isolated from blood culture were included. Median gestational age of affected neonates was 30 weeks (IQR: 28-34), and median birth weight was 1270 gr (interquartile range [IQR]: 990-1692). Only a minority had high-risk criteria, such as being born <28 weeks, 19% (24/127), or birth weight <1000 gr, 27% (34/127). The most common Candida species were C. albicans (n = 45, 35%), C. parapsilosis (n = 38, 30%), and Candida auris (n = 18, 14%). The majority of C. albicans isolates were fluconazole susceptible, whereas 59% of C. parapsilosis isolates were fluconazole-resistant. Amphotericin B was the most common antifungal used [74% (78/105)], followed by fluconazole [22% (23/105)]. Death by day 28 post-enrollment was 22% (28/127). To our knowledge, this is the largest multi-country cohort of NIC in LMICs. Most of the neonates would not have been considered at high risk for NIC in HICs. A substantial proportion of isolates was resistant to first choice fluconazole. Understanding the burden of NIC in LMIC is essential to guide future research and treatment guidelines.

Current Status of Pharmacokinetic Research in Children: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trial Records

BACKGROUND

Many medications have different pharmacokinetics in children than in adults. Knowledge about the safety and efficacy of medications in children requires research into the pharmacokinetic profiles of children's medicines. By analysing registered clinical trial records, this study determined how frequently pharmacokinetic data is gathered in paediatric drug trials.

METHODS

We searched for the pharmacokinetic data from clinical trial records for preterm infants and children up to the age of 16 from January 2011 to April 2022. The records of trials involving one or more drugs in preterm infants and children up to the age of 16 were examined for evidence that pharmacokinetic data would be collected.

RESULTS

In a total of 1483 records of interventional clinical trials, 136 (9.17%) pharmacokinetic data involved adults. Of those 136 records, 60 (44.1%) records were pharmacokinetics trials involving one or more medicines in children up to the age of 16.20 (33.3%) in America, followed by 19 (31.6%) in Europe. Most trials researched medicines in the field of infection or parasitic diseases 20 (33.3%). 27 (48.2%) and 26 (46.4%) trials investigated medicines that were indicated as essential medicine.

CONCLUSION

The pharmacokinetic characteristics of children's drugs need to be better understood. The current state of pharmacokinetic research appears to address the knowledge gap in this area adequately. Despite slow progress, paediatric clinical trials have experienced a renaissance as the significance of paediatric trials has gained international attention. The outcome of paediatric trials will have an impact on children's health in the future. In recent years, the need for greater availability and access to safe child-size pharmaceuticals has received a lot of attention.

Updates in the Pharmacologic Prophylaxis and Treatment of Invasive Candidiasis in the Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care Units

Purpose of review

The goal of this review was to provide an update on the prevention and treatment options for invasive candidiasis (IC) in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and pediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

Recent findings

Studies have further validated the use of fluconazole for IC prophylaxis among high-risk patients in the NICU. It remains unclear if prophylaxis leads to resistance development and the ideal dosage regimen is still not clear. Recent studies have been published comparing caspofungin and micafungin to amphotericin B and illustrated similar efficacy outcomes in the NICU. Micafungin now has approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in infants < 4 months of age. Prophylactic strategies in the PICU could include zinc and vitamin D. Anidulafungin has recent non-comparative data supporting use in pediatric patients older than 1 month of age and also has a recent FDA approval for use in children 1 month of age and older.

Summary

Fluconazole prophylaxis remains a reasonable strategy in select NICU patients, although further analyses of resistance and the optimal dosage regimen are needed. Echinocandins are potential therapeutic options for non-meningitis or urinary tract infections in both the neonatal and pediatric population.

Optimisation of fluconazole therapy for the treatment of invasive candidiasis in preterm infants

INTRODUCTION

Fluconazole is an important antifungal in the prevention and treatment of invasive Candida infections in neonates, even though its use in preterm infants is still off-label. Here, we performed a population pharmacokinetic study on fluconazole in preterm neonates in order to optimise dosing through the identified predictive patient characteristics.

METHODS

Fluconazole concentrations obtained from preterm infants from two studies were pooled and analysed using NONMEM V.7.3. The developed model was used to evaluate current dosing practice. A therapeutic dosing strategy aiming to reach a minimum target exposure of 400 and 200 mg×hour/L per 24 hours for fluconazole-susceptible C. albicans meningitis and other systemic infections, respectively, was developed.

RESULTS

In 41 preterm neonates with median (range) gestational age 25.3 (24.0-35.1) weeks and median postnatal age (PNA) at treatment initiation 1.4 (0.2-32.5) days, 146 plasma samples were collected. A one-compartment model described the data best, with an estimated clearance of 0.0147 L/hour for a typical infant of 0.87 kg with a serum creatinine concentration of 60 µmol/L and volume of distribution of 0.844 L. Clearance was found to increase with 16% per 100 g increase in actual body weight, and to decrease with 12% per 10 µmol/L increase in creatinine concentration once PNA was above 1 week. Dose adjustments based on serum creatinine and daily dosing are required for therapeutic target attainment.

CONCLUSION

In preterm neonates, fluconazole clearance is best predicted by actual body weight and serum creatinine concentration. Therefore, fluconazole dosing should not only be based on body weight but also on creatinine concentration to achieve optimal exposure in all infants.

ETHICS STATEMENT

The Erasmus MC ethics review board approved the protocol of the DINO Study (MEC-2014-067) and the Radboud UMC ethics review board waived the need for informed consent for cohort 2 (CMO-2021-8302). Written informed consent from parents/legal guardians was obtained prior to study initiation.

Fluconazole Population Pharmacokinetics after Fosfluconazole Administration and Dosing Optimization in Extremely Low-Birth-Weight Infants

A prospective single-center study was conducted to characterize the pharmacokinetics (PK) of fluconazole (FLCZ) in extremely low-birth-weight infants (ELBWIs) who received fosfluconazole (F-FLCZ). Intravenous F-FLCZ was administered at a dose of 3 mg/kg of body weight every 72 h during the first 2 weeks of life, every 48 h during the third and fourth weeks of life, and every 24 h after 5 weeks of life. Blood samples from ELBWIs treated with F-FLCZ were collected using scavenged samples. The concentration of FLCZ was determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The population pharmacokinetic model was established using Phenix NLME 8.2 software. In total, 18 ELBWIs were included in this analysis. Individual PK parameters were determined by a one-compartment analysis with first-order conversion. Postmenstrual age (PMA), serum creatinine (SCr), and alkaline phosphatase were considered covariates for clearance (CL). The mean population CL and the volume of distribution were 0.011 L/h/kg^0.75 and 0.95 L/kg, respectively. Simulation assessments with the final model revealed that the current regimen (3 mg/kg every 72 h) could achieve the proposed target FLCZ trough concentration (>2 μg/mL) in 43.3% and 72.2% of infants with a PMA of ≥37 and 30 to 36 weeks, respectively, and an SCr level of <0.5 mg/dL. Shortened dosing intervals (every 48 or 24 h) might improve the probability of target attainment. This study was the first to assess the PK of F-FLCZ in ELBWI, as well as the first to provide fundamental information about FLCZ exposure after F-FLCZ administration, with the goal of facilitating dose optimization in the ELBWI population.

IMPORTANCE Invasive fungal infection is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in very preterm or very-low-birth-weight infants. In order to limit the risk of invasive fungal infections in this population, the administration of fluconazole is generally recommended for extremely low-birth-weight infants admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit with a Candida species colonization prevalence rate of >10%, under the guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Fosfluconazole can reduce the volume of solution required for intravenous therapy compared to fluconazole because it has increased solubility, which is a major advantage for infants undergoing strict fluid management. To date, no study has demonstrated the fluconazole pharmacokinetics after fosfluconazole administration in neonates and infants, and this needs to be clarified. Here, we characterized the pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in extremely low-birth-weight infants who received F-FLCZ and explored the appropriate dosage in this patient population.

The Blind Spot of Pharmacology: A Scoping Review of Drug Metabolism in Prematurely Born Children

The limit for possible survival after extremely preterm birth has steadily improved and consequently, more premature neonates with increasingly lower gestational age at birth now require care. This specialized care often include intensive pharmacological treatment, yet there is currently insufficient knowledge of gestational age dependent differences in drug metabolism. This potentially puts the preterm neonates at risk of receiving sub-optimal drug doses with a subsequent increased risk of adverse or insufficient drug effects, and often pediatricians are forced to prescribe medication as off-label or even off-science. In this review, we present some of the particularities of drug disposition and metabolism in preterm neonates. We highlight the challenges in pharmacometrics studies on hepatic drug metabolism in preterm and particularly extremely (less than 28 weeks of gestation) preterm neonates by conducting a scoping review of published literature. We find that >40% of included studies failed to report a clear distinction between term and preterm children in the presentation of results making direct interpretation for preterm neonates difficult. We present summarized findings of pharmacokinetic studies done on the major CYP sub-systems, but formal meta analyses were not possible due the overall heterogeneous approaches to measuring the phase I and II pathways metabolism in preterm neonates, often with use of opportunistic sampling. We find this to be a testament to the practical and ethical challenges in measuring pharmacokinetic activity in preterm neonates. The future calls for optimized designs in pharmacometrics studies, including PK/PD modeling-methods and other sample reducing techniques. Future studies should also preferably be a collaboration between neonatologists and clinical pharmacologists.

Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of cryptococcosis and rare yeast infections in the haematology/oncology setting, 2021

Cryptococcosis caused by the Cryptococcus neoformans-Cryptococcus gattii complex is an important opportunistic infection in people with immunodeficiency, including in the haematology/oncology setting. This may manifest clinically as cryptococcal meningitis or pulmonary cryptococcosis, or be detected incidentally by cryptococcal antigenemia, a positive sputum culture or radiological imaging. Non-Candida, non-Cryptococcus spp. rare yeast fungaemia are increasingly common in this population. These consensus guidelines aim to provide clinicians working in the Australian and New Zealand haematology/oncology setting with clear guiding principles and practical recommendations for the management of cryptococcosis, while also highlighting important and emerging rare yeast infections and their recommended management.

Consensus guidelines for optimising antifungal drug delivery and monitoring to avoid toxicity and improve outcomes in patients with haematological malignancy and haemopoietic stem cell transplant recipients, 2021

Antifungal agents can have complex dosing and the potential for drug interaction, both of which can lead to subtherapeutic antifungal drug concentrations and poorer clinical outcomes for patients with haematological malignancy and haemopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Antifungal agents can also be associated with significant toxicities when drug concentrations are too high. Suboptimal dosing can be minimised by clinical assessment, laboratory monitoring, avoidance of interacting drugs, and dose modification. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) plays an increasingly important role in antifungal therapy, particularly for antifungal agents that have an established exposure-response relationship with either a narrow therapeutic window, large dose-exposure variability, cytochrome P450 gene polymorphism affecting drug metabolism, the presence of antifungal drug interactions or unexpected toxicity, and/or concerns for non-compliance or inadequate absorption of oral antifungals. These guidelines provide recommendations on antifungal drug monitoring and TDM-guided dosing adjustment for selected antifungal agents, and include suggested resources for identifying and analysing antifungal drug interactions. Recommended competencies for optimal interpretation of antifungal TDM and dose recommendations are also provided.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation of twice-a-week micafungin for prophylaxis of invasive fungal disease in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a prospective observational cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To determine the pharmacokinetics of twice-a-week micafungin prophylaxis in paediatric leukaemic patients to provide the rationale for this approach.

METHODS

Twice-a-week micafungin at a dose of 9 mg/kg (maximum 300 mg) was given during the leukaemic induction treatment with at least one pharmacokinetic assessment. Non-linear mixed-effects modelling was used for analysis. For model building, our paediatric data were strengthened with existing adult data. Monte Carlo simulations were performed with twice-a-week dosing regimens of 5, 7 and 9 mg/kg and flat dosing per weight band. Simulated paediatric exposures were compared with the exposure in adults after a once-daily 100 mg regimen.

RESULTS

Sixty-one paediatric patients were included with a median age and weight of 4.0 years (range 1.0-17) and 19.5 kg (range 8.60-182), respectively. A two-compartment model best fitted the data. CL and central Vd were lower (P < 0.01) in paediatric patients compared with adults. Predicted exposures (AUC0-168 h) for the 5, 7 and 9 mg/kg and flat dosing per weight band regimens exceeded the adult reference exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

All twice-a-week regimens appeared to result in adequate exposure for Candida therapy, with simulated exposures well above the adult reference exposure. These findings provide the rationale for the pharmacokinetic equivalence of twice-a-week and once-daily micafungin regimens. The greater micafungin exposures seem to be caused by a slower-than-anticipated CL in our paediatric leukaemic patients. The generalizability of our results for Aspergillus prophylaxis cannot be provided without assumptions on target concentrations and within-class identical efficacy.

Micafungin injection for the treatment of invasive candidiasis in pediatric patients under 4 months of age

INTRODUCTION

Neonates and young infants with invasive candidiasis are particularly at increased risk of dissemination including hematogenous Candida meningoencephalitis. The echinocandins including micafungin have emerged as a preferred agent in most cases of candidemia and invasive candidiasis but data in pediatric patients under 4 months of age are limited.

AREAS COVERED

In this report, we review the micafungin use in infants younger than 4 months of age. Animal studies as well as clinical data that support its use in neonatal candidiasis are reviewed. In addition, the status of FDA approval and the rationale of micafungin dosing recommendations in infants <4 months are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

A dose of 4 mg/kg was approved for treatment of candidemia, Candida peritonitis and abscesses excluding meningoencephalitis or ocular involvement in patients younger than 4 months of age. However, because of the risk of central nervous system dissemination as well as the difficulty in establishing this diagnosis, this dose is inadequate to treat ill infants with candidemia. More studies are needed to establish the safety and efficacy of micafungin daily dose of at least 10 mg/kg in infants younger than 4 months of age when hematogenous Candida meningoencephalitis or ocular involvement cannot be excluded.

Challenges in conducting paediatric trials with off-patent drugs

Introduction

For more than two decades several initiatives have emerged to increase recruitment of paediatric patients in drug trials. While trials of newly approved drugs have successfully included paediatric patients in their drug development plan, the collection of safety and efficacy data in paediatric patients treated with off-patent drugs poses a major challenge.

Aim

This paper aims to draw attention to problems and solutions across countries in investigator-initiated trials with off-patent drugs and recommendations for improvement.

Discussion

Off-patent drugs represent a particular challenge when they are included in a paediatric trial; these trials are frequently investigator-initiated and have limited resources, off-patent drugs are used in clinical settings and the trial protocol must accommodate e.g. flexible dosing and specimen sampling schedules, off-patent drugs typically exist in few formulations and concentrations which necessitates special or imported formulations. Paediatric trials are in some countries confined by e.g. consent from both parents, regardless of whether the Investigational Medicinal Product (IMP) is a well-known drug or a new experimental drug.

Conclusion

Facilitation of research in off-patent drugs can improve evidence-based and safe treatment for the paediatric population. The following supportive initiatives are recommended: Harmonised regulatory change that improves the consent process in low risk trials to prevent inadequate recruitment. Pharmaceutical expertise should be prioritized to secure the best choice of IMP and supply. Constant focus on flexibility in design to accommodate a multifaceted paediatric population and ensure that trial protocols fit in well with routine clinical care and family life.

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Triazoles in Pediatric Patients

Triazoles represent an important class of antifungal drugs in the prophylaxis and treatment of invasive fungal disease in pediatric patients. Understanding the pharmacokinetics of triazoles in children is crucial to providing optimal care for this vulnerable population. While the pharmacokinetics is extensively studied in adult populations, knowledge on pharmacokinetics of triazoles in children is limited. New data are still emerging despite drugs already going off patent. This review aims to provide readers with the most current knowledge on the pharmacokinetics of the triazoles: fluconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and isavuconazole. In addition, factors that have to be taken into account to select the optimal dose are summarized and knowledge gaps are identified that require further research. We hope it will provide clinicians guidance to optimally deploy these drugs in the setting of a life-threatening disease in pediatric patients.

Review of Fluconazole Treatment and Prophylaxis for Invasive Candidiasis in Neonates

Invasive candidiasis accounts for approximately 10% of nosocomial infections in preterm infants, with an incidence of 1% to 4% among neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admissions and a mortality as high as 20% to 30%. These outcomes warrant improved treatment and prevention strategies for infants at highest risk. The Infectious Diseases Society of America provides guidelines on antifungal medications for the prophylaxis and treatment of candidiasis in NICUs; however, there are still variations in practice on the use of fluconazole for prophylaxis and treatment of invasive candidiasis. This review provides specific information regarding fluconazole activity, pharmacokinetics, and a literature evaluation of dosing strategies and comparisons to other treatments in the neonatal population.

A Regulatory Review Approach for Evaluation of Micafungin for Treatment of Neonatal Candidiasis

Pathogenesis of neonatal candidiasis (NC) is distinct from systemic candidiasis in adults and older pediatric patients due to the significant incidence of central nervous system (CNS) involvement in neonates. Thus, although adequate and well-controlled trials in NC are often unfeasible due to difficulty enrolling patients, extrapolation of efficacy from antifungal drug trials in adults is generally not appropriate. However, treatment of NC is an area of great unmet need. We describe a regulatory review approach that combined the assessment of limited clinical efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and safety data from neonates and young infants along with microbiology outcomes and pharmacokinetic data from relevant nonclinical models of candidemia/invasive candidiasis to inform the use of micafungin in pediatric patients younger than 4 months of age, while communicating areas of remaining uncertainty in labeling.

Pharmacokinetics Alterations in Critically Ill Pediatric Patients on Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Systematic Review

Objectives: This study aimed to identify alterations in pharmacokinetics in children on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), identify knowledge gaps, and inform future pharmacology studies. Data Sources: We systematically searched the databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Embase from earliest publication until November 2018 using a controlled vocabulary and keywords related to "ECMO" and "pharmacokinetics," "pharmacology," "drug disposition," "dosing," and "pediatrics." Study Selection: Inclusion criteria were as follows: study population aged <18 years, supported on ECMO for any indications, received any medications while on ECMO, and reported pharmacokinetic data. Data Extraction: Clearance and/or volume of distribution values were extracted from included studies. Data Synthesis: Forty-one studies (total patients = 574) evaluating 23 drugs met the inclusion criteria. The most common drugs studied were antimicrobials (n = 13) and anticonvulsants (n = 3). Twenty-eight studies (68%) were conducted in children <1 year of age. Thirty-three studies (80%) were conducted without intra-study comparisons to non-ECMO controls. Increase in volume of distribution attributable to ECMO was demonstrated for nine (56%) drugs: cefotaxime, gentamicin, piperacillin/tazobactam, fluconazole, micafungin, levetiracetam, clonidine, midazolam, and sildenafil (range: 23-345% increase relative to non-ECMO controls), which may suggest the need for higher initial dosing. Decreased volume of distribution was reported for two drugs: acyclovir and ribavirin (50 and 69%, respectively). Decreased clearance was reported for gentamicin, ticarcillin/clavulanate, bumetanide, and ranitidine (range: 26-95% decrease relative to non-ECMO controls). Increased clearance was reported for caspofungin, micafungin, clonidine, midazolam, morphine, and sildenafil (range: 25-455% increase relative to non-ECMO controls). Conclusions: There were substantial pharmacokinetic alterations in 70% of drugs studied in children on ECMO. However, studies evaluating pharmacokinetic changes of many drug classes and those that allow direct comparisons between ECMO and non-ECMO patients are still lacking. Systematic evaluations of pharmacokinetic alterations of drugs on ECMO that incorporate multidrug opportunistic trials, physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling, and other methods are necessary for definitive dose recommendations. Trial Registration Prospero Identifier: CRD42019114881.

Advances in the Treatment of Mycoses in Pediatric Patients

The main indications for antifungal drug administration in pediatrics are reviewed as well as an update of the data of antifungal agents and antifungal policies performed. Specifically, antifungal therapy in three main areas is updated as follows: a) Prophylaxis of premature neonates against invasive candidiasis; b) management of candidemia and meningoencephalitis in neonates; and c) prophylaxis, empiric therapy, and targeted antifungal therapy in children with primary or secondary immunodeficiencies. Fluconazole remains the most frequent antifungal prophylactic agent given to high-risk neonates and children. However, the emergence of fluconazole resistance, particularly in non-albicans Candida species, should be considered during preventive or empiric therapy. In very-low birth-weight neonates, although fluconazole is used as antifungal prophylaxis in neonatal intensive care units (NICU's) with relatively high incidence of invasive candidiasis (IC), its role is under continuous debate. Amphotericin B, primarily in its liposomal formulation, remains the mainstay of therapy for treating neonatal and pediatric yeast and mold infections. Voriconazole is indicated for mold infections except for mucormycosis in children >2 years. Newer triazoles-such as posaconazole and isavuconazole-as well as echinocandins, are either licensed or under study for first-line or salvage therapy, whereas combination therapy is kept for refractory cases.

Validation of Heel Stick Microsampling To Optimize Micafungin Doses in Neonates and Young Infants

Major gaps exist in our knowledge of antimicrobial pharmacokinetics in critically ill neonates and infants that require validated microsampling and bioanalysis methods to support therapeutic drug monitoring. We compared serially collected intravenous (i.v.) and heel stick capillary (HSC)-sampled plasma concentrations of micafungin (8 mg/kg) in eight infants born preterm with systemic candidiasis. The mean (standard deviation) micafungin area under the plasma concentration-time curve to infinity (AUC_inf) was 316 (65.0) h · mg/liter based on HSC concentrations that strongly correlated (R² = 0.92) with i.v. values to support dose adjustment.

Pharmacokinetics and safety of fluconazole and micafungin in neonates with systemic candidiasis: a randomized, open-label clinical trial

AIMS

The pharmacokinetics (PK) of fluconazole and micafungin differ in neonates compared with children and adults. Dosing instructions in product labels appear to be inconsistent with the emerging scientific evidence. Limited information is available on the safety profile of these agents in neonates. Our objective was to study the population PK and safety of both drugs, randomly administered in neonates with suspected or confirmed systemic candidiasis.

METHODS

Neonates were randomized 1:1 to fluconazole (loading dose 25 mg kg^-1 ; maintenance dose 12 mg kg^-1 day^-1 or 20 mg kg^-1 day^-1 , respectively, for infants <30 weeks or ≥30 weeks' corrected gestational age) or micafungin (loading dose 15 mg kg^-1 day^-1 ; maintenance dose 10 mg kg^-1 day^-1 ). PK samples were taken on treatment days 1 and 5. Population parameters were determined using NONMEM and Monte Carlo simulations performed to reach predefined targets. Clinical and laboratory data, and adverse events were collected up to 36 weeks' corrected gestational age or hospital discharge.

RESULTS

Thirty-six neonates were enrolled. The median (range) gestational age was 28.2 (24.1-40.1) and 26.8 (23.5-40.0) weeks for fluconazole and micafungin, respectively. Based on 163 PK samples, the median population clearance (l h^-1 kg^-1 ) and volume of distribution (l kg^-1 ) for fluconazole were: 0.015 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.008, 0.039] and 0.913, and for micafungin were: 0.020 (95% CI 0.010, 0.023) and 0.354 (95% CI 0.225, 0.482), respectively. The loading dose was well tolerated. No adverse events associated with micafungin or fluconazole were reported.

CONCLUSION

Based on Monte Carlo simulations, a loading dose for fluconazole and dosing higher than recommended for both drugs are required to increase the area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve target attainment rate in neonates.