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Baek S, Jang J, Jung HJ, Lee H, Choe Y. Advanced Immunolabeling Method for Optical Volumetric Imaging Reveals Dystrophic Neurites of Dopaminergic Neurons in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Brain. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:3976-3999. [PMID: 38049707 PMCID: PMC11236860 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03823-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Optical brain clearing combined with immunolabeling is valuable for analyzing molecular tissue structures, including complex synaptic connectivity. However, the presence of aberrant lipid deposition due to aging and brain disorders poses a challenge for achieving antibody penetration throughout the entire brain volume. Herein, we present an efficient brain-wide immunolabeling method, the immuno-active clearing technique (iACT). The treatment of brain tissues with a zwitterionic detergent, specifically SB3-12, significantly enhanced tissue permeability by effectively mitigating lipid barriers. Notably, Quadrol treatment further refines the methodology by effectively eliminating residual detergents from cleared brain tissues, subsequently amplifying volumetric fluorescence signals. Employing iACT, we uncover disrupted axonal projections within the mesolimbic dopaminergic (DA) circuits in 5xFAD mice. Subsequent characterization of DA neural circuits in 5xFAD mice revealed proximal axonal swelling and misrouting of distal axonal compartments in proximity to amyloid-beta plaques. Importantly, these structural anomalies in DA axons correlate with a marked reduction in DA release within the nucleus accumbens. Collectively, our findings highlight the efficacy of optical volumetric imaging with iACT in resolving intricate structural alterations in deep brain neural circuits. Furthermore, we unveil the compromised integrity of DA pathways, contributing to the underlying neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease. The iACT technique thus holds significant promise as a valuable asset for advancing our understanding of complex neurodegenerative disorders and may pave the way for targeted therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soonbong Baek
- Developmental Disorders & Rare Diseases Research Group, Korea Brain Research Institute, 61 Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, 41062, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaemyung Jang
- Developmental Disorders & Rare Diseases Research Group, Korea Brain Research Institute, 61 Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, 41062, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Jung
- Developmental Disorders & Rare Diseases Research Group, Korea Brain Research Institute, 61 Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, 41062, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeyoung Lee
- Division of Applied Bioengineering, Dong-eui University, Busanjin-gu, Busan, 47340, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngshik Choe
- Developmental Disorders & Rare Diseases Research Group, Korea Brain Research Institute, 61 Cheomdan-ro, Daegu, 41062, Republic of Korea.
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Liu J, Tan J, Tang B, Guo J. Unveiling the role of iPLA 2β in neurodegeneration: From molecular mechanisms to advanced therapies. Pharmacol Res 2024; 202:107114. [PMID: 38395207 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Calcium-independent phospholipase A2β (iPLA2β), a member of the phospholipase A2 (PLA2s) superfamily, is encoded by the PLA2G6 gene. Mutations in the PLA2G6 gene have been identified as the primary cause of infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy (INAD) and, less commonly, as a contributor to Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent studies have revealed that iPLA2β deficiency leads to neuroinflammation, iron accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, lipid dysregulation, and other pathological changes, forming a complex pathogenic network. These discoveries shed light on potential mechanisms underlying PLA2G6-associated neurodegeneration (PLAN) and offer valuable insights for therapeutic development. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the fundamental characteristics of iPLA2β, its association with neurodegeneration, the pathogenic mechanisms involved in PLAN, and potential targets for therapeutic intervention. It offers an overview of the latest advancements in this field, aiming to contribute to ongoing research endeavors and facilitate the development of effective therapies for PLAN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiabin Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jieqiong Tan
- Centre for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Beisha Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Department of Geriatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jifeng Guo
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Centre for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Castillo G, Fustamante L, Delgado-Kamiche AD, Camen-Orozco RP, Clark T, Bernal E, Morales-Alvarez J, Ferrufino M, Mamani-Palomino J, Bustos JA, Garcia HH, Gavidia CM, Gilman RH, Verastegui M. Understanding the pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic effects in neurocysticercosis. Brain Pathol 2024:e13237. [PMID: 38212958 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.13237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite being a leading cause of acquired seizures in endemic regions, the pathological mechanisms of neurocysticercosis are still poorly understood. This study aims to investigate the impact of anthelmintic treatment on neuropathological features in a rat model of neurocysticercosis. Rats were intracranially infected with Taenia solium oncospheres and treated with albendazole + praziquantel (ABZ), oxfendazole + praziquantel (OXF), or untreated placebo (UT) for 7 days. Following the last dose of treatment, brain tissues were evaluated at 24 h and 2 months. We performed neuropathological assessment for cyst damage, perilesional brain inflammation, presence of axonal spheroids, and spongy changes. Both treatments showed comparable efficacy in cyst damage and inflammation. The presence of spongy change correlated with spheroids counts and were not affected by anthelmintic treatment. Compared to white matter, gray matter showed greater spongy change (91.7% vs. 21.4%, p < 0.0001), higher spheroids count (45.2 vs. 0.2, p = 0.0001), and increased inflammation (72.0% vs. 21.4%, p = 0.003). In this rat model, anthelmintic treatment destroyed brain parasitic cysts at the cost of local inflammation similar to what is described in human neurocysticercosis. Axonal spheroids and spongy changes as markers of damage were topographically correlated, and not affected by anthelmintic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gino Castillo
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Lizbeth Fustamante
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Ana D Delgado-Kamiche
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Rogger P Camen-Orozco
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Taryn Clark
- The Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Kings County Hospital Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, New York, United States
| | - Edson Bernal
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Jemima Morales-Alvarez
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Maria Ferrufino
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Javier Mamani-Palomino
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Salud animal, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Javier A Bustos
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Hector H Garcia
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Cesar M Gavidia
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
| | - Robert H Gilman
- The Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Manuela Verastegui
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Asociación Benéfica Prisma, Lima, Peru
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Rasmussen CLM, Thomsen LB, Heegaard CW, Moos T, Burkhart A. The Npc2 Gt(LST105)BygNya mouse signifies pathological changes comparable to human Niemann-Pick type C2 disease. Mol Cell Neurosci 2023; 126:103880. [PMID: 37454976 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2023.103880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Niemann-Pick type C2 disease (NP-C2) is a fatal neurovisceral disorder caused by defects in the lysosomal cholesterol transporter protein NPC2. Consequently, cholesterol and other lipids accumulate within the lysosomes, causing a heterogeneous spectrum of clinical manifestations. Murine models are essential for increasing the understanding of the complex pathology of NP-C2. This study, therefore, aims to describe the neurovisceral pathology in the NPC2-deficient mouse model to evaluate its correlation to human NP-C2. METHODS Npc2-/- mice holding the LST105 mutation were used in the present study (Npc2Gt(LST105)BygNya). Body and organ weight and histopathological evaluations were carried out in six and 12-week-old Npc2-/- mice, with a special emphasis on neuropathology. The Purkinje cell (PC) marker calbindin, the astrocytic marker GFAP, and the microglia marker IBA1 were included to assess PC degeneration and neuroinflammation, respectively. In addition, the pathology of the liver, lungs, and spleen was assessed using hematoxylin and eosin staining. RESULTS Six weeks old pre-symptomatic Npc2-/- mice showed splenomegaly and obvious neuropathological changes, especially in the cerebellum, where initial PC loss and neuroinflammation were evident. The Npc2-/- mice developed neurological symptoms at eight weeks of age, severely progressing until the end-stage of the disease at 12 weeks. At the end-stage of the disease, Npc2-/- mice were characterized by growth retardation, tremor, cerebellar ataxia, splenomegaly, foam cell accumulation in the lungs, liver, and spleen, brain atrophy, pronounced PC degeneration, and severe neuroinflammation. CONCLUSION The Npc2Gt(LST105)BygNya mouse model resembles the pathology seen in NP-C2 patients and denotes a valuable model for increasing the understanding of the complex disease manifestation and is relevant for testing the efficacies of new treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Louiza Bohn Thomsen
- Neurobiology Research and Drug Delivery, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark
| | | | - Torben Moos
- Neurobiology Research and Drug Delivery, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark
| | - Annette Burkhart
- Neurobiology Research and Drug Delivery, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark.
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Baquedano LE, Bernal EG, Carrion DJ, Delgado AD, Gavidia CM, Kirwan DE, Gilman RH, Verastegui MR. Impaired spatial working memory and reduced hippocampal neuronal density in a rat model of neurocysticercosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1183322. [PMID: 37323586 PMCID: PMC10267319 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1183322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is the most common parasitic disease affecting the nervous system and is a leading cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide, as well as cognitive impairment, especially affecting memory. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of NCC on spatial working memory and its correlation with hippocampal neuronal density, in a rat model of NCC. This experimental study was conducted on female (n = 60) and male (n = 73) Holtzman rats. NCC was induced by intracranial inoculation of T. solium oncospheres in 14 day-old-rats. Spatial working memory was assessed using the T-maze test at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months post-inoculation, and sensorimotor evaluation was performed at 12 months post-inoculation. Hippocampal neuronal density was evaluated by immunostaining of NeuN-positive cells of the CA1 region. Of the rats inoculated with T. solium oncospheres, 87.2% (82/94) developed NCC. The study showed a significant decline in spatial working memory over a 1-year follow-up period in rats experimentally infected with NCC. Males showed an early decline that started at 3 months, while females demonstrated it at 9 months. Additionally, a decrease in neuronal density was observed in the hippocampus of NCC-infected rats, with a more significant reduction in rats with cysts in the hippocampus than in rats with cysts in other brain areas and control rats. This rat model of NCC provides valuable support for the relationship between neurocysticercosis and spatial working memory deficits. Further investigations are required to determine the mechanisms involved in cognitive impairment and establish the basis for future treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Baquedano
- Parasitological Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
- The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru, Lima, Peru
| | - Edson G. Bernal
- The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru, Lima, Peru
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Daniel J. Carrion
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences, Universidad Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, Lima, Peru
| | - Ana D. Delgado
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Cesar M. Gavidia
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
- The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru, Lima, Peru
| | - Daniela E. Kirwan
- Infection and Immunity Research Institute, St George’s University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert H. Gilman
- The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru, Lima, Peru
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MA, United States
| | - Manuela R. Verastegui
- The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru, Lima, Peru
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru
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Garcia HH, Verastegui MR, Arroyo G, Bustos JA, Gilman RH. New animal models of neurocysticercosis can help understand epileptogenesis in neuroinfection. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1039083. [PMID: 36466808 PMCID: PMC9708716 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1039083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hector H. Garcia
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurologicas, Lima, Peru,Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru,*Correspondence: Hector H. Garcia
| | - Manuela R. Verastegui
- Alberto Cazorla School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Gianfranco Arroyo
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurologicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Javier A. Bustos
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurologicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Robert H. Gilman
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Sitali MC, Schmidt V, Mwenda R, Sikasunge CS, Mwape KE, Simuunza MC, da Costa CP, Winkler AS, Phiri IK. Experimental animal models and their use in understanding cysticercosis: A systematic review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271232. [PMID: 35853079 PMCID: PMC9295976 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis (NCC) can be studied using several animal species in experimental models which contributes to the understanding of the human form of the disease. Experimental infections of Taenia spp. are vital in explaining the modes of transmission of the parasite and helps the understanding of transmission of the parasite in humans and thus may be useful in designing therapeutic and immune-prophylactic studies to combat the disease. Thus, this systematic review aims to explore the existing experimental animal models to the understanding of cysticercosis in both humans and animals and elucidate the risk factors of cysticercosis and identify the Taenia spp. used in these models. METHODOLOGY We systematically identified all publications from the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Pubmed regarding experimental animal models using Taenia spp. that cause cysticercosis in both humans and animals. 58 studies were identified for eligibility. Of these, only 48 studies met the inclusion criteria from which data extraction was done and presented descriptively. RESULTS Pigs, cattle, gerbils, mice, rats, voles, monkeys, cats, dogs, and goats were used in which T. solium, T. saginata, T. saginata asiatica, T. crassiceps and T. asiatica were studied. The routes used to induce disease were; oral, intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intraarterial, intracranial, intraduodenal, and surgical routes using eggs, oncospheres, and proglottids. Besides, the establishment of infection using eggs and oncospheres was affected by the route used to induce infection in the experimental animals. The cysticerci recovery rate in all the experimental studies was low and the number of animals used in these experiments varied from 1 to 84. Although not analysed statistically, sex, age, and breed of animals influenced the cysticerci recovery rate. Additionally, the cysticerci recovery rate and antibody-antigen levels were shown to increase with an increase in the dose of oncospheres and eggs inoculated in the animals. Contrasting results were reported in which the cysticerci recovery rate decreased with an increase in the dose of eggs inoculated. CONCLUSION This review describes the various animal experiments using Taenia species that cause cysticercosis highlighting the animals used, age and their breed, the routes of infection used to induce disease and the sample size used, and the cysticerci recovery rate in these animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muloongo C. Sitali
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Veronika Schmidt
- Centre for Global Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Racheal Mwenda
- Department of Paraclinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Chummy S. Sikasunge
- Department of Paraclinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Kabemba E. Mwape
- Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Martin C. Simuunza
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Clarissa P. da Costa
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Andrea S. Winkler
- Department of Neurology, Centre for Global Health, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Isaac K. Phiri
- Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
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Coyle CM. New Insights Into Calcified Neurocysticercosis: Closing the Knowledge Gap. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:e2601-e2603. [PMID: 32619230 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Bustos JA, Arroyo G, Gilman RH, Soto-Becerra P, Gonzales I, Saavedra H, Pretell EJ, Nash TE, O’Neal SE, Del Brutto OH, Gonzalez AE, Garcia HH. Frequency and Determinant Factors for Calcification in Neurocysticercosis. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:e2592-e2600. [PMID: 32556276 PMCID: PMC8563199 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurocysticercosis is a major cause of acquired epilepsy. Larval cysts in the human brain eventually resolve and either disappear or leave a calcification that is associated with seizures. In this study, we assessed the proportion of calcification in parenchymal neurocysticercosis and risk factors associated with calcification. METHODS Data for 220 patients with parenchymal NCC from 3 trials of antiparasitic treatment were assessed to determine what proportion of the cysts that resolved 6 months after treatment ended up in a residual calcification at 1 year. Also, we evaluated the risk factors associated with calcification. RESULTS The overall proportion of calcification was 38% (188/497 cysts, from 147 patients). Predictors for calcification at the cyst level were cysts larger than 14 mm (risk ratio [RR], 1.34; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.75) and cysts with edema at baseline (RR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.05-1.85). At the patient level, having had more than 24 months with seizures (RR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.08-1.46), mild antibody response (RR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.002-1.27), increased dose albendazole regime (RR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.14-1.39), lower doses of dexamethasone (RR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.02-1.81), not receiving early antiparasitic retreatment (RR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.08-1.93), or complete cure (RR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.29-1.71) were associated with a increased risk of calcification. CONCLUSIONS Approximately 38% of parenchymal cysts calcify after antiparasitic treatment. Some factors associated with calcification are modifiable and may be considered to decrease or avoid calcification, potentially decreasing the risk for seizure relapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier A Bustos
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Gianfranco Arroyo
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Robert H Gilman
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Percy Soto-Becerra
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Isidro Gonzales
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
| | - Herbert Saavedra
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
| | - E Javier Pretell
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Alberto Sabogal, Callao, Perú
| | - Theodore E Nash
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Seth E O’Neal
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
- School of Public Health, Oregon Health and Science University and Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Oscar H Del Brutto
- School of Medicine, Universidad Espíritu Santo–Ecuador, Samborondón, Ecuador
| | - Armando E Gonzalez
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Hector H Garcia
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Perú
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health and Management, and School of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Neurocysticercosis is the most common helminthic infection of the central nervous system caused by the larval stage of the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium. Endemic regions include Latin American countries, sub-Saharan Africa, and large regions of Asia, including the Indian subcontinent and is a global health problem. Seizures are the most common manifestation and approximately 30% of adult-onset seizures in endemic regions are attributable to NCC. Calcifications because of neurocysticercosis is the most common finding on imaging in endemic regions and are important seizure foci contributing to the burden of epilepsy. RECENT FINDINGS After treatment with antiparasitics for multiple viable parenchymal disease, approximately 38% of cysts that resolved after 6 months of therapy will result in residual calcifications, which represents a significant burden of residual disease. Calcified disease has been referred to as 'inactive disease', but there is accumulating evidence to suggest that calcified granulomas are actually dynamic and substantially contribute to the development and maintenance of seizures. SUMMARY Calcified parenchymal neurocysticercosis contributes significantly to the development and maintenance of seizures in endemic regions. Understanding the pathogenesis of the role of calcified NCC in seizure development and risk factors for development of calcifications after treatment is critical to decreasing the burden of symptomatic disease in endemic regions.
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Carmen-Orozco RP, Dávila-Villacorta DG, Delgado-Kamiche AD, Celiz RH, Trompeter G, Sutherland G, Gavídia C, Garcia HH, Gilman RH, Verástegui MR. Changes in inflammatory gene expression in brain tissue adjacent and distant to a viable cyst in a rat model for neurocysticercosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009295. [PMID: 33905419 PMCID: PMC8104410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The parasite Taenia solium causes neurocysticercosis (NCC) in humans and is a common cause of adult-onset epilepsy in the developing world. Hippocampal atrophy, which occurs far from the cyst, is an emerging new complication of NCC. Evaluation of molecular pathways in brain regions close to and distant from the cyst could offer insight into this pathology. METHODS Rats were inoculated intracranially with T. solium oncospheres. After 4 months, RNA was extracted from brain tissue samples in rats with NCC and uninfected controls, and cDNA was generated. Expression of 38 genes related to different molecular pathways involved in the inflammatory response and healing was assessed by RT-PCR array. RESULTS Inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1, together with TGF-β and ARG-1, were overexpressed in tissue close to the parasite compared to non-infected tissue. Genes for IL-1A, CSF-1, FN-1, COL-3A1, and MMP-2 were overexpressed in contralateral tissue compared to non-infected tissue. CONCLUSIONS The viable cysticerci in the rat model for NCC is characterized by increased expression of genes associated with a proinflammatory response and fibrosis-related proteins, which may mediate the chronic state of infection. These pathways appear to influence regions far from the cyst, which may explain the emerging association between NCC and hippocampal atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rogger P. Carmen-Orozco
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
- Cellular and Molecular Medicine Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Danitza G. Dávila-Villacorta
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Ana D. Delgado-Kamiche
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Rensson H. Celiz
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Grace Trompeter
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Graham Sutherland
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Cesar Gavídia
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú
| | - Hector H. Garcia
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurologicas, Lima, Perú
| | - Robert H. Gilman
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Perú
| | - Manuela R. Verástegui
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
- * E-mail:
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12
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Hamamoto Filho PT, Fragoso G, Sciutto E, Fleury A. Inflammation in neurocysticercosis: clinical relevance and impact on treatment decisions. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19:1503-1518. [PMID: 33794119 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1912592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neurocysticercosis is caused by the localization of Taenia solium larvae in the central nervous system. The disease remains endemic in most countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa. While major improvements have been made in its diagnosis and treatment, uncertainties persist regarding the clinical implications and treatment of the inflammatory reaction associated with the disease. AREAS COVERED In this review, based on PubMed searches, the authors describe the characteristics of the immune-inflammatory response in patients with neurocysticercosis, its clinical implications and the treatment currently administered. The dual role of inflammation (participating in both, the death of the parasite, and the precipitation of serious complications) is discussed. New therapeutic strategies of potential interest are presented. EXPERT OPINION Inflammatory reaction is the main pathogenic mechanism associated to neurocysticercosis. Its management is mainly based on corticosteroids administration. This strategy had improved prognostic of patients as it allows for the control of most of the inflammatory complications. On the other side, it might be involved in the persistence of parasites in some patients, despite cysticidal treatment, due to its immunosuppressive properties. New strategies are needed to improve therapeutical management, particularly in the severest presentations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro T Hamamoto Filho
- Department of Neurology, Psychology and Psychiatry, UNESP-Univ Estadual Paulista, Botucatu Medical School, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Gladis Fragoso
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Edda Sciutto
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Agnès Fleury
- Department of Genomic Medicine and Environmental Toxicology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico.,Neurocysticercosis Clinic, Instituto Nacional de Neurología Y Neurocirugía, Ciudad de México, Mexico, mexico.,Neuroinflammation Unit, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México/INNN/Facultad de Medicina-UNAM, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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13
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Dual/double pathology in neurocysticercosis causing drug resistant epilepsy - Chance association or causal? Epilepsy Res 2020; 168:106472. [PMID: 33137632 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neurocysticercosis (NCC) as cause of drug resistant epilepsy (DRE) is commonly reported from India. We reviewed the neuropathological findings in patients undergoing resective surgery for DRE due to NCC, to determine the pathomechanism of epileptogenesis. METHODS Clinical, demographic and neuropathological findings of histologically confirmed cases of NCC causing DRE between 2005-2019 were reviewed. NeuN, GFAP, phosphorylated neurofilament, vimentin, CD34 for glial/ neuronal alterations, and Masson trichrome, Luxol Fast blue for evidence of fibrosis/ demyelination was used to determine cause of epileptogenesis. RESULTS There were 12 cases of NCC associated with dual/ double pathology, which constituted 3.02 % (12/398) of all the operated DRE. [Age range: 17-37y, Male:Female = 1.4:1]. Seizure duration ranged from 3-32y, with seizure onset between 4-27y. On MRI, lesions were of variable signal intensity on T1 and isointense on T2 with blooming on GRE/ SWI, and CT revealed calcification. Majority (11/12) had associated hippocampal sclerosis (HS) type 1 (dual pathology), localised to the same side as cysticercal cyst, suggesting it may be involved in the pathogenesis of HS. Ten had single cysticercal lesion involving ipsilateral hippocampus in 6, parahippocampal gyrus in 2, amygdala and temporal lobe in 1 case each. One had multiple NCC located in bilateral frontal, parietal and ipsilateral hippocampus. Adjacent cortex around the NCC evaluated in 6 cases, revealed inflammation, gliosis, axonal disruption/ beading, and variable synaptic/ neuronal dystrophic changes. There was a single case of NCC with Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) type IIb (double pathology). In 11/12 cases Engel's post-surgery outcome was available with all having class I outcome. CONCLUSION HS was most common pathology associated with cysticercosis (Dual pathology), localised ipsilateral to the cysticercal cyst, suggesting that HS is a secondary/ epiphenomenon. Perilesional changes such as inflammation, gliosis, dystrophic synaptic and axonal pathology play a role in inducing or perpetuating the epileptiform activity. The association of FCD IIb with NCC in one case is likely to be a chance occurrence.
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Glatzel
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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15
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Garcia HH, Gonzalez AE, Gilman RH. Taenia solium Cysticercosis and Its Impact in Neurological Disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2020; 33:e00085-19. [PMID: 32461308 PMCID: PMC7254859 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00085-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Taenia solium neurocysticercosis (NCC) is endemic in most of the world and contributes significantly to the burden of epilepsy and other neurological morbidity. Also present in developed countries because of immigration and travel, NCC is one of few diseases targeted for eradication. This paper reviews all aspects of its life cycle (taeniasis, porcine cysticercosis, human cysticercosis), with a focus on recent advances in its diagnosis, management, and control. Diagnosis of taeniasis is limited by poor availability of immunological or molecular assays. Diagnosis of NCC rests on neuroimaging findings, supported by serological assays. The treatment of NCC should be approached in the context of the particular type of infection (intra- or extraparenchymal; number, location, and stage of lesions) and has evolved toward combined symptomatic and antiparasitic management, with particular attention to modulating inflammation. Research on NCC and particularly the use of recently available genome data and animal models of infection should help to elucidate mechanisms of brain inflammation, damage, and epileptogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector H Garcia
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Armando E Gonzalez
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
| | - Robert H Gilman
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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16
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Yong Y, Gamage K, Cheng I, Barford K, Spano A, Winckler B, Deppmann C. p75NTR and DR6 Regulate Distinct Phases of Axon Degeneration Demarcated by Spheroid Rupture. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9503-9520. [PMID: 31628183 PMCID: PMC6880466 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1867-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The regressive events associated with trophic deprivation are critical for sculpting a functional nervous system. After nerve growth factor withdrawal, sympathetic axons derived from male and female neonatal mice maintain their structural integrity for ∼18 h (latent phase) followed by a rapid and near unison disassembly of axons over the next 3 h (catastrophic phase). Here we examine the molecular basis by which axons transition from latent to catastrophic phases of degeneration following trophic withdrawal. Before catastrophic degeneration, we observed an increase in intra-axonal calcium. This calcium flux is accompanied by p75 neurotrophic factor receptor-Rho-actin-dependent expansion of calcium-rich axonal spheroids that eventually rupture, releasing their contents to the extracellular space. Conditioned media derived from degenerating axons are capable of hastening transition into the catastrophic phase of degeneration. We also found that death receptor 6, but not p75 neurotrophic factor receptor, is required for transition into the catastrophic phase in response to conditioned media but not for the intra-axonal calcium flux, spheroid formation, or rupture that occur toward the end of latency. Our results support the existence of an interaxonal degenerative signal that promotes catastrophic degeneration among trophically deprived axons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Developmental pruning shares several morphological similarities to both disease- and injury-induced degeneration, including spheroid formation. The function and underlying mechanisms governing axonal spheroid formation, however, remain unclear. In this study, we report that axons coordinate each other's degeneration during development via axonal spheroid rupture. Before irreversible breakdown of the axon in response to trophic withdrawal, p75 neurotrophic factor receptor-RhoA signaling governs the formation and growth of spheroids. These spheroids then rupture, allowing exchange of contents ≤10 kDa between the intracellular and extracellular space to drive death receptor 6 and calpain-dependent catastrophic degeneration. This finding informs not only our understanding of regressive events during development but may also provide a rationale for designing new treatments toward myriad neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kanchana Gamage
- Department of Cell Biology
- Amgen, Massachusetts & Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
| | - Irene Cheng
- Department of Biology
- Neuroscience Graduate Program
| | | | | | | | - Christopher Deppmann
- Department of Biology,
- Neuroscience Graduate Program
- Department of Cell Biology
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, and
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17
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Del Brutto OH. Axonal swelling and spheroids in
Taenia solium
neurocysticercosis. Brain Pathol 2019; 29:320. [DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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18
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Palma S, Chile N, Carmen-Orozco RP, Trompeter G, Fishbeck K, Cooper V, Rapoport L, Bernal-Teran EG, Condori BJ, Gilman RH, Verastegui MR. In vitro model of postoncosphere development, and in vivo infection abilities of Taenia solium and Taenia saginata. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007261. [PMID: 30870421 PMCID: PMC6435196 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Taenia solium is known to cause human cysticercosis while T. saginata does not. Comparative in vitro and in vivo studies on the oncosphere and the postoncospheral (PO) forms of T. solium and T. saginata may help to elucidate why cysticercosis can occur from one and not the other. The aim of this study was to use in vitro culture assays and in vivo models to study the differences in the development of the T. solium and T. saginata oncosphere. Furthermore, this study aimed to evaluate the expression of cytokines and metalloproteinases (MMPs) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which were stimulated by these oncospheres and PO antigens. T. solium and T. saginata activated oncospheres (AO) were cultured in INT-407 and HCT-8 intestinal cells for 180 days. The T. solium began to die while the T. saginata grew for 180 days and developed to cysticerci in INT-407 cells. Rats were inoculated intracranially with AO and PO forms of either T. saginata or T. solium. Rats infected with T. solium AO and PO forms developed neurocysticercosis (NCC), while those infected with the T. saginata did not. Human PMBCs were stimulated with antigens of AO and PO forms of both species, and the production of cytokines and metalloproteinases (MMPs) was measured. The T. solium AO antigen stimulated a higher production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, and IL-2 cytokines compared to T. saginata AO. In the PO form, the T. saginata PO antigen increased the production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α and IL-12 cytokines compared to T. solium, suggesting that this global immune response stimulated by different forms could permit survival or destruction of the parasite depending of their life-cycle stage. Regarding MMPs, T. solium AO antigen stimulated a higher production of MMP-9 compared to T. saginata AO antigen, which may be responsible for altering the permeability of intestinal cells and facilitating breakdown of the blood-brain barrier during the process of invasion of host tissue. Taenia solium and Taenia saginata are two parasites that cause the tissue infection cysticercosis in their intermediate hosts, pigs and cows, respectively. One major difference between them is that T. solium can also cause neurocysticercosis in the human brain, while T. saginata cannot. Neurocysticercosis is thought to be the major cause of adult-onset seizures in developing countries. It is not well understood why only T. solium can survive in human tissue; however, the host inflammatory response likely plays an important role. The authors found that human immune cells stimulated with T. solium in the early stages of the parasite life cycle produced a more robust cytokine response than T. saginata. However, in the mature stage, which occurs once T. solium reaches the brain, T. solium antigens stimulated a lower inflammatory response compared to T. saginata, suggesting the parasite is able to manipulate the host immune response in some way to evade destruction. These findings may support the differences in growth observed by the authors when rat brains were inoculated with either parasite species. This study provides new insights into the different ways T. solium and T. saginata activate the immune response to survive and develop within the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Palma
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Nancy Chile
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Rogger P. Carmen-Orozco
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Grace Trompeter
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kayla Fishbeck
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Virginia Cooper
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Laura Rapoport
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, United States of America
| | - Edson G. Bernal-Teran
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Beth J. Condori
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Robert H. Gilman
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Manuela R. Verastegui
- Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- * E-mail:
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19
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Gilman RH, Carmen-Orozco RP, Carter E, Verastegui MR. Letter in response to Del Brutto, axonal swelling and spheroids in Taenia solium neurocysticercosis. Brain Pathol 2019; 29:319. [PMID: 30637848 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Gilman
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú.,The Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD.,Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Perú
| | - Rogger P Carmen-Orozco
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Emma Carter
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú.,Cysticercosis Unit, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurologicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Manuela R Verastegui
- Infectious Diseases Laboratory Research-LID, Faculty of Science and Philosophy, Alberto Cazorla Talleri, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
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