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Shah A, Varma M, Bhandari R. Exploring sulforaphane as neurotherapeutic: targeting Nrf2-Keap & Nf-Kb pathway crosstalk in ASD. Metab Brain Dis 2024; 39:373-385. [PMID: 37249861 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01224-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a family of complex neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized mainly through deficits in social behavior and communication. While the causes giving rise to autistic symptoms are numerous and varied, the treatment options and therapeutic avenues are still severely limited. Nevertheless, a number of signalling pathways have been implicated in the pathogenesis of the disease, and targeting these pathways might provide insight into potential treatments and future strategies. Importantly, alterations in inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction have been noted in the brains of ASD patients, and among the pathways involved in these processes is the Nrf2 cascade. This particular pathway has been hypothesized to be involved in inducing both, inflammatory and anti-inflammatory/neuroprotective effects in the brain, sparking an interest in its use in ASD. Sulforaphane, a sulfur-containing phytochemical present mainly in cruciferous plants like broccoli and cabbage, has shown efficacy in activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway, which in turn brings about a protective effect on neuronal cells, especially against mitochondrial dysfunction. Its efficacy against ASD has not yet been evaluated, and in this paper, we attempt to discuss the therapeutic potential of this agent in the therapy of autism, with special emphasis on the role of the Nrf2 pathway in the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Shah
- Pharmacology Research Laboratory, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC- Centre of Advanced Study, Panjab University, 160 014, Chandigarh, India
| | - Manasi Varma
- Pharmacology Research Laboratory, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC- Centre of Advanced Study, Panjab University, 160 014, Chandigarh, India
| | - Ranjana Bhandari
- Pharmacology Research Laboratory, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC- Centre of Advanced Study, Panjab University, 160 014, Chandigarh, India.
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Jiang X, Yan Q, Lao W, Lin Q, Cao H, Chen L, Chen J, Yu X, Liu F. Irisin attenuates ethanol-induced behavioral deficits in mice through activation of Nrf2 and inhibition of NF-κB pathways. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:1643-1656. [PMID: 36947333 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01202-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the effect of irisin on ethanol-induced behavioral deficits and explore the underlying mechanisms. A mouse model of ethanol addiction/withdrawal was constructed through chronic ethanol administration. Depressive-like behaviors were evaluated by the tail suspension test and forced swimming test, and anxiety-like behaviors were evaluated by the marble-burying test and elevated plus maze test. The expression of Nrf2 was measured by western blotting. Levels of inflammatory mediators (NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and oxidative stress factors (ROS, MDA, GSH and SOD) were detected by ELISA. The ethanol-induced PC12/BV2 cell injury model was used to elucidate whether the effect of irisin on ethanol-induced neurological injury was related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. Ethanol-induced ethanol preference and emotional deficits were improved by chronic irisin treatment; however, these improvements were partly reversed by cotreatment with the Nrf2 inhibitor ML385. Further results implied that the improvement effect of irisin on behavioral abnormalities may be related to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. In detail, irisin inhibited ethanol-induced abnormal expression of ROS and MDA and upregulated the expression of GSH and SOD. Meanwhile, irisin treatment inhibited ethanol-induced overexpression of NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. The regulation of oxidative stress factors by irisin was reversed after ML385 treatment. In the in vitro study, overexpression of oxidative stress factors in ethanol-treated PC12 cells was inhibited by irisin treatment; however, the prevention was reversed after the knockdown of Nrf2 siRNA. Moreover, ethanol-induced overexpression of inflammatory mediators in BV2 cells was also inhibited by irisin treatment. Irisin improved depressive and anxiety-like behaviors induced by ethanol addiction/withdrawal in mice, and this protection was greatly associated with the NF-κB-mediated anti-inflammatory signaling pathway and Nrf2-mediated antioxidative stress signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Jiang
- Zhejiang University Mingzhou Hospital, 315000, Ningbo, China
| | - Qizhi Yan
- Shaoxing People's Hospital, Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Wendie Lao
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical University, 315000, Ningbo, China
| | - Qian Lin
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Haoran Cao
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical University, 315000, Ningbo, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical University, 315000, Ningbo, China
| | - Jin Chen
- Zhejiang University Mingzhou Hospital, 315000, Ningbo, China
| | - Xuefeng Yu
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical University, 315000, Ningbo, China.
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College, No.888 Yinxian Avenue East Section, Ningbo, 315000, China.
| | - Fuhe Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical University, 315000, Ningbo, China.
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College, No.888 Yinxian Avenue East Section, Ningbo, 315000, China.
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Li X, Khan D, Rana M, Hänggi D, Muhammad S. Doxycycline Attenuated Ethanol-Induced Inflammaging in Endothelial Cells: Implications in Alcohol-Mediated Vascular Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11122413. [PMID: 36552622 PMCID: PMC9774758 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11122413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Excess alcohol consumption is a potential risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and is linked to accelerated aging. Drug discovery to reduce toxic cellular events of alcohol is required. Here, we investigated the effects of ethanol on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and explored if doxycycline attenuates ethanol-mediated molecular events in endothelial cells. Initially, a drug screening using a panel of 170 drugs was performed, and doxycycline was selected for further experiments. HUVECs were treated with different concentrations (300 mM and 400 mM) of ethanol with or without doxycycline (10 µg/mL). Telomere length was quantified as telomere to single-copy gene (T/S) ratio. Telomere length and the mRNA expression were quantified by qRT-PCR, and protein level was analyzed by Western blot (WB). Ethanol treatment accelerated cellular aging, and doxycycline treatment recovered telomere length. Pathway analysis showed that doxycycline inhibited mTOR and NFκ-B activation. Doxycycline restored the expression of aging-associated proteins, including lamin b1 and DNA repair proteins KU70 and KU80. Doxycycline reduced senescence and senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) in ethanol-treated HUVECs. In conclusion, we report that ethanol-induced inflammation and aging in HUVECs were ameliorated by doxycycline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanchen Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dilaware Khan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-21181-08782
| | - Majeed Rana
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Daniel Hänggi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sajjad Muhammad
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Helsinki, Topeliuksenkatu 5, 00260 Helsinki, Finland
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Huan Z, Tang Y, Xu C, Cai J, Yao H, Wang Y, Bu F, Ge X. PTPRO knockdown protects against inflammation in hemorrhage shock-induced lung injury involving the NF-κB signaling pathway. Respir Res 2022; 23:195. [PMID: 35906634 PMCID: PMC9335982 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-022-02118-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hemorrhage shock (HS) is characterized by decreased tissue oxygenation and organ damage due to severe blood loss. Protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type O (PTPRO) is abnormally up-regulated in the rat lungs after trauma/HS. Methods To elucidate the regulatory mechanism of PTPRO in lung inflammation following HS, we established a rat model of HS via withdrawing blood by a catheter inserted into the femoral artery followed by resuscitation. The rats were infected with lentivirus harboring short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeting PTPRO by intratracheal instillation. Results PTPRO was significantly up-regulated in rat lungs after HS. PTPRO knockdown enhanced epithelial integrity and reduced capillary leakage by up-regulating tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin (OCC) in the lungs. Besides, HS-induced myeloperoxidase activity and inflammatory cell infiltration was mitigated by PTPRO knockdown. The expression of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines (TNF-α, IL-6, MIP-2, MCP-1, and KC) in the lungs and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was regressed after PTPRO knockdown. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway was involved in HS-induced lung inflammation. PTPRO down-regulation inhibited the NF-κB pathway activation by suppressing the phosphorylation of NF-κB and its translocation from the cytoplasm into the nucleus in HS. Conclusion Taken together, we demonstrated that PTPRO knockdown may contribute to attenuating inflammation in HS-induced lung injury via inhibiting NF-κB pathway activation. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12931-022-02118-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhirong Huan
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Tang
- Department of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Ce Xu
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China
| | - Jimin Cai
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Yao
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China
| | - Fanyu Bu
- Department of Reconstruction Surgery, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xin Ge
- Department of ICU, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214000, People's Republic of China. .,Orthopedic Institution of Wuxi City, Wuxi, 214000, Jiangsu, China. .,Department of ICU, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China.
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Effects of taraxasterol against ethanol and high-fat diet-induced liver injury by regulating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. Life Sci 2020; 262:118546. [PMID: 33035580 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Studies have reported that taraxasterol (TAR) is effective in the treatment of immune liver injury and alcoholic liver injury. The mechanism of action is mainly related to the inhibition of inflammation. To determine the key molecular mechanisms for the effect of TAR on alleviating ethanol and high-fat diet-induced liver injury, pathological morphology, biochemistry, oxidative stress, inflammatory response and lipid metabolism were examined. Our results showed that TAR could inhibit ethanol-induced hepatocyte death or lipid accumulation, and suppress oxidative stress, inflammatory response and lipid metabolism disorders. More specifically, ethanol-induced TLR-4 and MyD88 inflammatory response were down-regulated, when treated with TAR. Production of CYP2E1, Nrf2 and HO-1, which produced in response to increased oxidative stress, were regulated in TAR treated, ethanol-induced hepatocytes. In summary, TAR could inhibit the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, which was related to the regulation of TAR on TLR-4/MyD88/NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways.
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Guo L, Zhang H, Yan X. Protective effect of dihydromyricetin revents fatty liver through nuclear factor‑κB/p53/B‑cell lymphoma 2‑associated X protein signaling pathways in a rat model. Mol Med Rep 2018; 19:1638-1644. [PMID: 30592279 PMCID: PMC6390035 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2018.9783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Dihydromyricetin is the major flavonoid in vine tea, whose pharmacological action has attracted increasing attention in recent years. The triglyceride, albumin (ALB), alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, glutathione (GSH), GSH peroxidase, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and IL-18 expression levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. The protein levels of ALB and collagen I, PPARα, NF-κB, p53 and Bax were used to measure using western blotting. The results revealed that dihydromyricetin prevented the development of fatty liver, and inhibited oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in a fatty liver rat model. In addition, treatment with dihydromyricetin inhibited the levels of ALB and collagen I, while it induced peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α protein expression. Dihydromyricetin also suppressed the protein expression levels of nuclear factor (NF)-κB, p53 and B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein (Bax) in the rat model. Collectively, it is concluded that dihydromyricetin exerted a protective effect on fatty liver through NF-κB/p53/Bax signaling pathways in a rat model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Guo
- Department of Hepatopathy, Sixth People's Hospital of Qingdao, Qingdao, Shandong 266033, P.R. China
| | - Haifeng Zhang
- Department of Hepatopathy, Sixth People's Hospital of Qingdao, Qingdao, Shandong 266033, P.R. China
| | - Xiuping Yan
- Department of Hepatopathy, Sixth People's Hospital of Qingdao, Qingdao, Shandong 266033, P.R. China
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RELJA B, OMID N, WAGNER N, MÖRS K, WERNER I, JUENGEL E, PERL M, MARZI I. Ethanol, ethyl and sodium pyruvate decrease the inflammatory responses of human lung epithelial cells via Akt and NF-κB in vitro but have a low impact on hepatocellular cells. Int J Mol Med 2015; 37:517-25. [DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2015.2431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Relja B, Weber R, Maraslioglu M, Wagner N, Borsello T, Jobin C, Marzi I, Lehnert M. Differential Relevance of NF-κB and JNK in the Pathophysiology of Hemorrhage/Resususcitation-Induced Liver Injury after Chronic Ethanol Feeding. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137875. [PMID: 26367181 PMCID: PMC4569329 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic ethanol (EtOH) abuse worsens pathophysiological derangements after hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation (H/R) that induce hepatic injury and strong inflammatory changes via JNK and NF-κB activation. Inhibiting JNK with a cell-penetrating, protease-resistant peptide D-JNKI-1 after H/R in mice with healthy livers ameliorated these effects. Here, we studied if JNK inhibition by D-JNKI-1 in chronically EtOH-fed mice after hemorrhagic shock prior to the onset of resuscitation also confers protection. METHODS Male mice were fed a Lieber-DeCarli diet containing EtOH or an isocaloric control (ctrl) diet for 4 weeks. Animals were hemorrhaged for 90 min (32 ± 2 mm Hg) and randomly received either D-JNKI-1 (11 mg/kg, intraperitoneally, i. p.) or sterile saline as vehicle (veh) immediately before the onset of resuscitation. Sham animals underwent surgical procedures without H/R and were either D-JNKI-1 or veh treated. Two hours after resuscitation, blood samples and liver tissue were harvested. RESULTS H/R induced hepatic injury with increased systemic interleukin (IL)-6 levels, and enhanced local gene expression of NF-κB-controlled genes such as intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and matrix metallopeptidase (MMP)9. c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation were increased after H/R. These effects were further increased in EtOH-fed mice after H/R. D-JNKI-1 application inhibited the proinflammatory changes and reduced significantly hepatic injury after H/R in ctrl-fed mice. Moreover, D-JNKI-1 reduces in ctrl-fed mice the H/R-induced c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation. However, in chronically EtOH-fed mice, JNK inhibition did not prevent the H/R-induced hepatic damage and proinflammatory changes nor c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation after H/R. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate, that JNK inhibition is protective only in not pre-harmed liver after H/R. In contrast, the pronounced H/R-induced liver damage in mice being chronically fed with ethanol cannot be prevented by JNK inhibition after H/R and seems to be under the control of NF-κB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borna Relja
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Roxane Weber
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Miriam Maraslioglu
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Nils Wagner
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Tiziana Borsello
- Neuronal Death and Neuroprotection Unit, Instituto Di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Milano, Italy
| | - Christian Jobin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Ingo Marzi
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Mark Lehnert
- Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
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Exploring the Potential of Venom from Nasonia vitripennis as Therapeutic Agent with High-Throughput Screening Tools. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:2051-70. [PMID: 26046700 PMCID: PMC4488689 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7062051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The venom from the ectoparasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) contains at least 80 different proteins and possibly even more peptides or other small chemical compounds, demonstrating its appealing therapeutic application. To better understand the dynamics of the venom in mammalian cells, two high-throughput screening tools were performed. The venom induced pathways related to an early stress response and activated reporters that suggest the involvement of steroids. Whether these steroids reside from the venom itself or show an induced release/production caused by the venom, still remains unsolved. The proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β was found to be down-regulated after venom and LPS co-treatment, confirming the anti-inflammatory action of N. vitripennis venom. When analyzing the expression levels of the NF-κB target genes, potentially not only the canonical but also the alternative NF-κB pathway can be affected, possibly explaining some counterintuitive results. It is proposed that next to an NF-κB binding site, the promoter of the genes tested by the PCR array may also contain binding sites for other transcription factors, resulting in a complex puzzle to connect the induced target gene with its respective transcription factor. Interestingly, Nasonia venom altered the expression of some drug targets, presenting the venom with an exciting therapeutical potential.
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Chronic ethanol feeding modulates inflammatory mediators, activation of nuclear factor-κB, and responsiveness to endotoxin in murine Kupffer cells and circulating leukocytes. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:808695. [PMID: 24623963 PMCID: PMC3928853 DOI: 10.1155/2014/808695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic ethanol abuse is known to increase susceptibility to infections after injury, in part, by modification of macrophage function. Several intracellular signalling mechanisms are involved in the initiation of inflammatory responses, including the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway. In this study, we investigated the systemic and hepatic effect of chronic ethanol feeding on in vivo activation of NF-κB in NF-κBEGFP reporter gene mice. Specifically, the study focused on Kupffer cell proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α and activation of NF-κB after chronic ethanol feeding followed by in vitro stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We found that chronic ethanol upregulated NF-κB activation and increased hepatic and systemic proinflammatory cytokine levels. Similarly, LPS-stimulated IL-1β release from whole blood was significantly enhanced in ethanol-fed mice. However, LPS significantly increased IL-6 and TNF-α levels. These results demonstrate that chronic ethanol feeding can improve the responsiveness of macrophage LPS-stimulated IL-6 and TNF-α production and indicate that this effect may result from ethanol-induced alterations in intracellular signalling through NF-κB. Furthermore, LPS and TNF-α stimulated the gene expression of different inflammatory mediators, in part, in a NF-κB-dependent manner.
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