On how risk and group size interact to influence vigilance

The role of collective behaviour in fish response to visual cues

This study investigated the influence of group size (individual, groups of five, and 20) on the response of common minnow to visual cues created by vertical black and white stripes over time. The stripes were displayed on a monitor either at one end of an experimental tank, while the other was uniform white, or both ends simultaneously. Reponses were compared with a control (stripes absent). Visual cues were pseudo-randomly presented every 15-minutes over six-hours. Three predictions were made: first, due to more efficient flow of information, larger groups would respond more rapidly (Rate of response) to the visual cues. Second, assuming visual cues provide a proxy for structure and larger groups experience greater benefits of group membership due to reduced predatory risk, there will be stronger association (Strength of association and Final association) with stripes for individuals and smaller groups compared with larger groups. Consequently, the association with visual cues exhibited by larger groups would diminish over time compared to smaller, more risk averse groups. As expected, larger groups exhibited a faster Rate of response to visual cues, and individual fish a greater Strength of association compared with the largest group size. Final association, however, was more common for larger groups compared to both smaller groups and individuals. Contrary to the final prediction, responses to visual cues did not decrease over time for any group size, suggesting innate behaviour or an experimental duration insufficient to observe habituation.

Watch out! High vigilance at small waterholes when alone in open trees

An animal's environment contains many risks causing animals to scan their environment for potential predators and threats from conspecifics. How much time they invest in such vigilance depends on environmental and social factors. Most vigilance studies have been conducted in a foraging context with little known about vigilance in other contexts. Here we investigated vigilance of Gouldian finches at waterholes considering environmental and social factors. Gouldian finches are colour polymorphic with two main head colours in both sexes co-occurring in the same population, black-headed and red-headed. Data collection was done on birds sitting in trees surrounding waterholes by measuring the frequency of head movements, which reflects how frequently they change their field of view, i.e., scan different areas in their environment. A higher frequency generally reflects higher vigilance. Gouldian finches had a higher frequency of head movements when at small waterholes and when sitting in open, leafless trees. Moreover, head movements were higher when birds were alone in the tree as compared to groups of birds. Finally, birds in same head colour morph groups had a higher frequency of head movements than birds in mixed head colour groups. Results indicate heightened vigilance with increased perception of predation risk (small waterholes, open exposed perch, when alone) but that social vigilance also played a role (group composition) with particularly the aggressive red-headed birds being more vigilant when together with other red-headed birds. Future research should investigate the effect of smaller waterholes as global warming will cause smaller waterholes to become more common for longer periods of time, which can increase stress in the birds.

Family living and cooperative breeding in birds are associated with the number of avian predators

Cooperative breeding occurs when individuals contribute parental care to offspring that are not their own. Numerous intra- and interspecific studies have aimed to explain the evolution of this behavior. Recent comparative work suggests that family living (i.e., when offspring remain with their parents beyond independence) is a critical stepping stone in the evolution of cooperative breeding. Thus, it is key to understand the factors that facilitate the evolution of family living. Within-species studies suggest that protection from predators is a critical function of group living, through both passive benefits such as dilution effects and active benefits such as prosocial antipredator behaviors in family groups. However, the association between predation risk and the formation and prevalence of family groups and cooperative breeding remains untested globally. Here, we use phylogenetic comparative analyses including 2,984 bird species to show that family living and cooperative breeding are associated with increased occurrence of avian predators. These cross-species findings lend support to previous suggestions based on intraspecific studies that social benefits of family living, such as protection against predation, could favor the evolution of delayed dispersal and cooperative breeding.

Red deer Cervus elaphus blink more in larger groups

Most animals need to spend time being vigilant for predators, at the expense of other activities such as foraging. Group-living animals can benefit from the shared vigilance effort of other group members, with individuals reducing personal vigilance effort as group size increases. Behaviors like active scanning or head lifting are usually used to quantify vigilance but may not be accurate measures of this. We suggest that measuring an animal's blinking rate gives a meaningful measure of vigilance: increased blinking implies reduced vigilance, as the animal cannot detect predators when its eyes are closed. We describe an observational study of a captive population of red deer, where we measured the blinking rates of individual deer from groups of differing sizes (where mean group size ranged between 1 and 42.7 individuals). We demonstrate that as group size increases in red deer, individuals increase their blink rate, confirming the prediction that vigilance should decrease. Blinking is a simple non-invasive measure and offers a useful metric for assessing the welfare of animals experiencing an increase in perceived predation risk or other stressors.

Is vigilance a personality trait? Plasticity is key alongside some contextual consistency

Animals regularly scan their environment for predators and to monitor conspecifics. However, individuals in a group seem to differ in their vigilance linked to age, sex or state with recent links made to personality. The aims of the study were to investigate whether a) individuals differ consistently in their vigilance, b) vigilance is linked to other personality traits and c) other factors affect vigilance in the colour polymorphic Gouldian finch. Birds were tested in same (red-headed or black-headed) or mixed head colour morph same sex pairs in four contexts (novel environment, familiar environment, two changed environments). Vigilance was measured as horizontal head movements. Vigilance showed contextual consistency but no long-term temporal consistency over a year. Head movements were only weakly linked to other personality traits indicative of a risk-reward trade-off with more explorative individuals being less vigilant. Vigilance was highly plastic across situations and affected by group composition. Mixed head colour morph pairs made more head movements, potentially linked to higher social vigilance. Results indicate that vigilance is a highly plastic trait affected by personality rather than a personality trait on its own, which allows adapting vigilance to different situations.

Goitered Gazelle Gazella subgutturosa Responded to Human Disturbance by Increasing Vigilance Rather than Changing the Group Size

Nonlethal human disturbances have been confirmed to have a negative effect on wildlife in a variety of ways, including on behaviors. In many studies, the impact of human disturbances on gregarious species of wildlife is assessed through changes in their social organization and vigilance. In our study in the Kalamaili Nature Reserve, China, we wanted to estimate the impacts of differing levels of human disturbances on two different group types (mixed-sex and all-male) of goitered gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa, living in three functional zones (experimental, buffer, and core zones), which represent high, medium, and low human disturbance levels, respectively. In addition, we studied the time spent vigilant as a function of group size with different levels of human disturbances in the three zones. In general, mixed-sex gazelle groups were of similar sizes in the three different zones, while all-male groups slightly differed in their sizes between the experimental and buffer zones. This may indicate that human disturbances have varying effects on the different group types, with smaller-sized, single-sex groups being more significantly affected by human disturbances than larger-sized, mixed-sex groups. Goitered gazelle showed higher vigilance levels in the experimental zone than in the two other zones. A trend of decreasing vigilance varying linearly with group size was also found in the three zones, and the rate of decrease was higher in the experimental zone. Increased habitat fragmentation and human activities brought goitered gazelle and humans closer together in the core zone. Therefore, stopping mining activities and returning the reserve to a continuous habitat with fewer environmental disturbances is the best way to establish and protect a stable population of this endangered species of gazelle.

Being There. If the Pairing of the Birdwatchers Affects the Pairing of the Birds

The drives of inter-individual relationships within avian social groups are largely unexplored and relatively poorly understood, including how social landscapes affect the decisions of individuals within these groups. On a modest level, this study undertakes to expand this knowledge with an ornithological observation of temporary groupings among multiple aquatic species in response to the pairing of birdwatchers. More ambitiously, the study presumes the analogy between the social response of an avian community and the subliminal response of the human psyche to spatial stimuli. The number of bird pairs forming in flocks, coverts and rafts was consistently higher when the birds interacted with children teamed up in pairs than when solitary children interacted with the birds. Inadvertent social cues consequential to the extended duration of the focus, vigilance stimulation and subliminal messages affecting the neurological pathways in the brain and the social dynamics pertaining to proxemics are discussed as potential causes of this effect. Lastly, the structure of the paper mimics the lifetime of inventive ideas, which originate from a chaos of amorphous thought, then crystallize into a clarity of logical concepts open to elaboration, and eventually disperse into a similar semantic clutter as that from which they were born.

Anxiety in Geoffroy's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi): Can scratching be used as an indicator?

Self-directed behavior, such as self-scratching (hereafter, scratching), occurs in several taxa across the animal kingdom, including nonhuman primates. There is substantial evidence that scratching is an indicator of anxiety-like emotions in a variety of nonhuman primate species. Despite its importance as a window into emotional states, few studies have investigated scratching in Platyrrhines. We investigated scratching patterns of 24 Geoffroy's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) belonging to a group living in the Otoch Ma'ax Yetel Kooh protected area in the Yucatàn peninsula (Mexico). We assessed whether scratching could be used as an indicator of anxiety levels in this species by testing predictions based on contexts and behaviors associated with risk and uncertainty. We found no effect of the subject's sex and age, subgroup size, male presence, and the occurrence of fusions between subgroups on scratching rates. Similarly, we found no effect of infant proximity on their mother's scratching rates. Supporting our prediction, we found evidence that isolation from conspecifics affected scratching rates as individuals scratched more frequently the more time they spent isolated. Being in proximity with a partner with a relationship characterized by uncertainty affected scratching rates as individuals scratched more frequently when in proximity with a partner with whom they engaged in embraces (an indicator of uncertainty) than when in proximity with a partner with whom they did not exchange embraces. Our study provides insight into the factors affecting scratching in Geoffroy's spider monkeys, suggesting that scratching may indicate anxiety in this species at least in some contexts and thus opening a window into the emotional experience of another Platyrrhine monkey species.

“Ecology of fear” in ungulates: Opportunities for improving conservation

Because ungulates are important contributors to ecosystem function, understanding the “ecology of fear” could be important to the conservation of ecosystems. Although studying ungulate ecology of fear is common, knowledge from ungulate systems is highly contested among ecologists. Here, we review the available literature on the ecology of fear in ungulates to generalize our current knowledge and how we can leverage it for conservation. Four general focus areas emerged from the 275 papers included in our literature search (and some papers were included in multiple categories): behavioral responses to predation risk (79%), physiological responses to predation risk (15%), trophic cascades resulting from ungulate responses to predation risk (20%), and manipulation of predation risk (1%). Of papers focused on behavior, 75% were about movement and habitat selection. Studies were biased toward North America (53%), tended to be focused on elk (Cervus canadensis; 29%), and were dominated by gray wolves (40%) or humans (39%) as predators of interest. Emerging literature suggests that we can utilize predation risk for conservation with top‐down (i.e., increasing predation risk) and bottom‐up (i.e., manipulating landscape characteristics to increase risk or risk perception) approaches. It is less clear whether fear‐related changes in physiology have population‐level fitness consequences or cascading effects, which could be fruitful avenues for future research. Conflicting evidence of trait‐mediated trophic cascades might be improved with better replication across systems and accounting for confounding effects of ungulate density. Improving our understanding of mechanisms modulating the nature of trophic cascades likely is most important to ensure desirable conservation outcomes. We recommend future work embrace the complexity of natural systems by attempting to link together the focal areas of study identified herein.

An Adaptive Dynamic Model of a Vigilance Game Among Group Foragers

In group foraging animals, vigilance tends to decrease as group size increases. A forager in a group receives a vigilance benefit not only when it is being vigilant itself but also when a group mate is being vigilant. The many eyes hypothesis supposes that individuals exhibit lower vigilance in larger groups because of this. However, changes in safety resulting from the vigilance benefit conferred by group mates can change the decision to join or leave a group so as vigilance changes because of changes in group size, group size may also change in response to changes in vigilance. Additionally, individuals may have poor information about the vigilance strategies of their neighbors. We present a game theoretical model of vigilance that incorporates dynamic group sizes and does not require behavioral monitoring of the vigilance strategies of others. For systems at equilibrium, maximum vigilance decreases with increased group size. Furthermore, by varying intraspecific competition we show an inverse relationship between group size and vigilance. Thus, we provide a mechanism in support of the many eyes hypothesis from an evolutionary game theory perspective and conclude that variation in intraspecific competition and its effect on group size may be responsible for the relationship.

Morph Composition Matters in the Gouldian Finch (Chloebia gouldiae): Involvement of Red-Headed Birds Increases Vigilance

Animals invest in costly vigilance to detect threats. Joining groups reduces these costs, which can be further reduced in mixed-species assemblages. In colour-polymorphic species, morphs often experience different predation pressure and vary in a variety of traits. However, little is known about differences in vigilance or how group composition affects vigilance. The aim was to investigate whether higher conspicuousness increased vigilance and whether vigilance was reduced in mixed-morph groups like in mixed-species assemblages. I tested vigilance in the colour-polymorphic Gouldian Finch (Chloebia gouldiae). Same sex pairs of different age and of either pure (red-red or black-black) or mixed head colour were exposed to three contexts (familiar, changed and novel environment) and head movements were recorded. All birds reduced the frequency of head movements with increasing novelty, indicating different vigilance strategies (switching from a searching to a tracking strategy) depending on the situation. While vigilance did not differ between morphs, morph composition mattered. Black-headed pairs made fewer head movements than mixed-head colour pairs. Results indicated that conspicuousness did not affect vigilance, possibly due to existing adaptations to reduce predation risk. However, whenever red-headed birds were involved, vigilance increased either because of higher group conspicuousness or prevalence of aggression.

Foraging decisions of rock lizards may be dependent both on current rival assessment and dear enemy recognition

Foraging strategies aim to maximize the amount of food obtained while minimizing searching costs. To reduce these costs, animals use different strategies based on the use of personal or social information to exploit food patches. At the same time, the social attraction for food resources could increase competition intensity for them. Prior experiences of animals regarding social risk and the foreknowledge of the competitors might drive the foraging strategies. In this paper, we examined experimentally whether rock lizards used behavioural strategies to reduce the risks of foraging in presence of potential competitors. We measured the foraging behaviour of a lizard resident to a territory (i.e. terrarium), in the presence of both familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics (potential competitors). We considered whether foraging choices between two food sources of different value (i.e. quantity) are influenced by familiarity with the intruder and the evaluation of its competitive ability based on body size differences between lizards. We found differences in the number of attacks performed to the best food source, with more attacks when the intruder was unfamiliar. The results suggest evidence of both dear enemy recognition and current rival assessment modulate the foraging choices depending on the identity and the social relationship with the intruder.

Factors affecting individual foraging behavior in a threatened seabird: Olrog’s Gull (Larus atlanticus) as a case study

The analysis of feeding strategies in animals is one of the most important topics in foraging ecology. The individual’s foraging behavior depends on both the individual’s own actions and the behavior of other foragers. Here we analyse the effect of the sex and group size on the foraging behavior of immature Olrog’s Gull (Larus atlanticus Olrog, 1958), endemic to the Atlantic coast of southern South America and regionally listed a threatened species. Birds were captured, banded, sexed, and aged during the non-breeding season in Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon, Argentina. The foraging behavior was quantified by observations made on individuals of known identity, recording the size of foraging groups, as well as prey size and type. Foraging parameters estimated were foraging effort, capture rate, and foraging efficiency. Males spent more time in agonistic behavior and captured larger prey. With an increase in group size, the capture rate, the capture of small crabs by males, and the foraging effort were higher. The agonistic behaviors, size of consumed prey, and foraging effort were affected by individual identity. Our study pinpoints factors underlying variation in the foraging behavior of Olrog’s Gulls and illustrates the importance of modelling individual variation when analyzing foraging behavior.

Certainty and integration of options in animal movement

Physical energy defines the energy landscape and determines the species-specific cost of movement, thus influencing movement decisions. In unpredictable and dynamic environments, observing the locomotion of others increases individual certainty in the distribution of physical energy to increase movement efficiency. Beyond the physical energy landscape, social sampling increases certainty in all ecological landscapes that influence animal movement (including fear and resource landscapes), and individuals use energy to express each of these. We call for the development of an 'optimal movement theory' (OMT) that integrates the multidimensional reality of movement decisions by combining ecological landscapes according to a single expectation of energy cost-benefit, where social sampling provides up-to-date information under uncertain conditions. This mechanistic framework has implications for predicting individual movement patterns and for investigating the emergence of aggregations.

A meta-analysis of the group-size effect on vigilance in mammals

Group-size effects, whereby antipredator vigilance decreases as group size increases, are widely reported in mammals and birds but a meta-analysis has only been conducted in birds. We systematically reviewed the literature on mammalian group-size effects, estimated the effect sizes in each study, and conducted a phylogenetic meta-analysis. We obtained 296 effect sizes from 97 species belonging to 10 Orders and 26 Families. Overall, effect sizes indicated a moderate negative effect of group size (r = −0.44), but 43% of the effect sizes were compatible with a null effect of group size. There was significant heterogeneity in effect sizes. Weaker effect sizes occurred when vigilance was measured as a frequency or a duration rather than as a percentage of time spent vigilant, when measured in closed habitats, during the reproductive season, and in mixed-sex groups or during times when juveniles were absent. We infer a “file drawer problem” because there were relatively few studies with smaller sample sizes reporting small group-size effects. The results confirm the importance of group size in explaining variation in mammalian vigilance but also suggest which a substantial amount of variation remains unexplained. We suggest that future studies should aim to study mammalian group-size effects by quantifying the percentage of time allocated to vigilance rather than lower-power methods such as frequency or duration of vigilance.