Novel mouse model for Gardner syndrome generated by a large-scale N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis program

Mutations and mechanisms of WNT pathway tumour suppressors in cancer

Mutation-induced activation of WNT-β-catenin signalling is a frequent driver event in human cancer. Sustained WNT-β-catenin pathway activation endows cancer cells with sustained self-renewing growth properties and is associated with therapy resistance. In healthy adult stem cells, WNT pathway activity is carefully controlled by core pathway tumour suppressors as well as negative feedback regulators. Gene inactivation experiments in mouse models unequivocally demonstrated the relevance of WNT tumour suppressor loss-of-function mutations for cancer growth. However, in human cancer, a far more complex picture has emerged in which missense or truncating mutations mediate stable expression of mutant proteins, with distinct functional and phenotypic ramifications. Herein, we review recent advances and challenges in our understanding of how different mutational subsets of WNT tumour suppressor genes link to distinct cancer types, clinical outcomes and treatment strategies.

A new mouse model of GLUT1 deficiency syndrome exhibits abnormal sleep-wake patterns and alterations of glucose kinetics in the brain

Dysfunction of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) proteins causes infantile epilepsy, which is designated as a GLUT1 deficiency syndrome (GLUT1DS; OMIM #606777). Patients with GLUT1DS display varied clinical phenotypes, such as infantile seizures, ataxia, severe mental retardation with learning disabilities, delayed development, hypoglycorrhachia, and other varied symptoms. Glut1^Rgsc200 mutant mice mutagenized with N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) carry a missense mutation in the Glut1 gene that results in amino acid substitution at the 324th residue of the GLUT1 protein. In this study, these mutants exhibited various phenotypes, including embryonic lethality of homozygotes, a decreased cerebrospinal-fluid glucose value, deficits in contextual learning, a reduction in body size, seizure-like behavior and abnormal electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns. During EEG recording, the abnormality occurred spontaneously, whereas the seizure-like phenotypes were not observed at the same time. In sleep-wake analysis using EEG recording, heterozygotes exhibited a longer duration of wake times and shorter duration of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep time. The shortened period of NREM sleep and prolonged duration of the wake period may resemble the sleep disturbances commonly observed in patients with GLUT1DS and other epilepsy disorders. Interestingly, an in vivo kinetic analysis of glucose utilization by positron emission tomography with 2-deoxy-2-[fluorine-18]fluoro-D-glucose imaging revealed that glucose transportation was reduced, whereas hexokinase activity and glucose metabolism were enhanced. These results indicate that a Glut1^Rgsc200 mutant is a useful tool for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of GLUT1DS.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the joint first authors of the paper.

Summary: New phenotypes are revealed by a GLUT1 deficiency mutant mouse model carrying a missense mutation in Glut1.

Evolution of Relapse-Proficient Subclones Constrained by Collateral Sensitivity to Oncogene Overdose in Wnt-Driven Mammary Cancer

Targeted cancer therapeutics select for drug-resistant rescue subclones (RSCs), which typically carry rescue mutations that restore oncogenic signaling. Whereas mutations underlying antibiotic resistance frequently burden drug-naive microbes with a fitness cost, it remains unknown whether and how rescue mutations underlying cancer relapse encounter negative selection prior to targeted therapy. Here, using mouse models of reversible, Wnt-driven mam-mary cancer, we uncovered stringent counter-selection against Wnt signaling overdose during the clonal evolution of RSCs. Analyzing recurrent tumors emerging during simulated targeted therapy (Wnt withdrawal) by multi-region DNA sequencing revealed polyclonal relapses comprised of multiple RSCs, which bear distinct but functionally equivalent rescue mutations that converge on sub-maximal Wnt pathway activation. When superimposed on native (i.e., undrugged) signaling, these rescue mutations faced negative selection, indicating that they burden RSCs with a fitness cost before Wnt withdrawal unmasks their selective advantage. Exploiting collateral sensitivity to oncogene overdose may help eliminate RSCs and prevent cancer relapse.

Keller and Gunther show that Wnt-driven mammary cancers challenged with simulated targeted therapy (Wnt withdrawal) undergo clonal evolution, which stringently selects for mutations that restore a “just right” level of oncogenic signaling. Therefore, cancer relapses emerge from rare subclones that are encumbered by an untapped vulnerability to oncogene overdose.

Mouse models of human ocular disease for translational research

Mouse models provide a valuable tool for exploring pathogenic mechanisms underlying inherited human disease. Here, we describe seven mouse models identified through the Translational Vision Research Models (TVRM) program, each carrying a new allele of a gene previously linked to retinal developmental and/or degenerative disease. The mutations include four alleles of three genes linked to human nonsyndromic ocular diseases (Aipl1tvrm119, Aipl1tvrm127, Rpgrip1tvrm111, RhoTvrm334) and three alleles of genes associated with human syndromic diseases that exhibit ocular phentoypes (Alms1tvrm102, Clcn2nmf289, Fkrptvrm53). Phenotypic characterization of each model is provided in the context of existing literature, in some cases refining our current understanding of specific disease attributes. These murine models, on fixed genetic backgrounds, are available for distribution upon request and may be useful for understanding the function of the gene in the retina, the pathological mechanisms induced by its disruption, and for testing experimental approaches to treat the corresponding human ocular diseases.

Carcinogen-specific mutations in preferred Ras-Raf pathway oncogenes directed by strand bias

Carcinogen exposures inscribe mutation patterns on cancer genomes and sometimes bias the acquisition of driver mutations toward preferred oncogenes, potentially dictating sensitivity to targeted agents. Whether and how carcinogen-specific mutation patterns direct activation of preferred oncogenes remains poorly understood. Here, mouse models of breast cancer were exploited to uncover a mechanistic link between strand-biased mutagenesis and oncogene preference. When chemical carcinogens were employed during Wnt1-initiated mammary tumorigenesis, exposure to either 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) dramatically accelerated tumor onset. Mammary tumors that followed DMBA exposure nearly always activated the Ras pathway via somatic Hras(CAA61CTA) mutations. Surprisingly, mammary tumors that followed ENU exposure typically lacked Hras mutations, and instead activated the Ras pathway downstream via Braf(GTG636GAG) mutations. Hras(CAA61CTA) mutations involve an A-to-T change on the sense strand, whereas Braf(GTG636GAG) mutations involve an inverse T-to-A change, suggesting that strand-biased mutagenesis may determine oncogene preference. To examine this possibility further, we turned to an alternative Wnt-driven tumor model in which carcinogen exposures augment a latent mammary tumor predisposition in Apc(min) mice. DMBA and ENU each accelerated mammary tumor onset in Apc(min) mice by introducing somatic, "second-hit" Apc mutations. Consistent with our strand bias model, DMBA and ENU generated strikingly distinct Apc mutation patterns, including stringently strand-inverse mutation signatures at A:T sites. Crucially, these contrasting signatures precisely match those proposed to confer bias toward Hras(CAA61CTA) versus Braf(GTG636GAG) mutations in the original tumor sets. Our findings highlight a novel mechanism whereby exposure history acts through strand-biased mutagenesis to specify activation of preferred oncogenes.

Novel retinoblastoma mutation abrogating the interaction to E2F2/3, but not E2F1, led to selective suppression of thyroid tumors

Mutant mouse models are indispensable tools for clarifying gene functions and elucidating the pathogenic mechanisms of human diseases. Here, we describe novel cancer models bearing point mutations in the retinoblastoma gene (Rb1) generated by N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis. Two mutations in splice sites reduced Rb1 expression and led to a tumor spectrum and incidence similar to those observed in the conventional Rb1 knockout mice. The missense mutant, Rb1^D326V/+, developed pituitary tumors, but thyroid tumors were completely suppressed. Immunohistochemical analyses of thyroid tissue revealed that E2F1, but not E2F2/3, was selectively inactivated, indicating that the mutant Rb protein (pRb) suppressed thyroid tumors by inactivating E2F1. Interestingly, Rb1^D326V/+ mice developed pituitary tumors that originated from the intermediate lobe of the pituitary, despite selective inactivation of E2F1. Furthermore, in the anterior lobe of the pituitary, other E2F were also inactivated. These observations show that pRb mediates the inactivation of E2F function and its contribution to tumorigenesis is highly dependent on the cell type. Last, by using a reconstitution assay of synthesized proteins, we showed that the D326V missense pRb bound to E2F1 but failed to interact with E2F2/3. These results reveal the effect of the pRb N-terminal domain on E2F function and the impact of the protein on tumorigenesis. Thus, this mutant mouse model can be used to investigate human Rb family-bearing mutations at the N-terminal region.