Liposomal simvastatin sensitizes C26 murine colon carcinoma to the antitumor effects of liposomal 5-fluorouracil in vivo

Repurposing of Metabolic Drugs Metformin and Simvastatin as an Emerging Class of Cancer Therapeutics

Metabolic alterations are commonly associated with various cancers and are recognized as contributing factors to cancer progression, invasion, and metastasis. Drug repurposing, a strategy in drug discovery, utilizes existing knowledge to recommend established drugs for new indications based on clinical data or biological evidence. This approach is considered a less risky alternative to traditional drug development. Metformin, a biguanide, is a product of Galega officinalis (French lilac) primarily prescribed for managing type 2 diabetes, is recognized for its ability to reduce hepatic glucose production and enhance insulin sensitivity, particularly in peripheral tissues such as muscle. It also improves glucose uptake and utilization while decreasing intestinal glucose absorption. Statins, first isolated from the fungus Penicillium citrinum is another class of medication mainly used to lower cholesterol levels in individuals at risk for cardiovascular diseases, work by inhibiting the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, which is essential for cholesterol biosynthesis in the liver. Metformin is frequently used in conjunction with statins to investigate their potential synergistic effects. Combination of metformin and simvastatin has gathered much attention in cancer research because of its potential advantages for cancer prevention and treatment. In this review, we analyze the effects of metformin and simvastatin, both individually and in combination, on key cancer hallmarks, and how this combination affects the expression of biomolecules and associated signaling pathways. We also summarize preclinical research, including clinical trials, on the efficacy, safety, and potential applications of repurposing metformin and simvastatin for cancer therapy.

Targeting the mevalonate pathway enhances the efficacy of 5-fluorouracil by regulating pyroptosis

The 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-based chemotherapy regimen is a primary strategy for treating pancreatic cancer (PC). However, challenges related to 5-FU resistance persist. Investigating the mechanisms of 5-FU resistance and identifying a clinically viable therapeutic strategy are crucial for improving the prognosis of PC. Here, through clinical samples analysis, we found that the expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), the rate-limiting enzyme in mevalonate metabolism, is negatively correlated with the efficacy of 5-FU treatment. There is a significant correlation between HMGCR and the pyroptosis marker gasdermin D (GSDMD), and the HMGCR inhibitor simvastatin can significantly inhibit the activation of pyroptosis signaling. The exogenous addition of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP), a key metabolite of the mevalonate pathway, can significantly reduce sensitivity to 5-FU, and simvastatin combined with 5-FU demonstrates a strong synergistic effect. Furthermore, in organoid models and genetically engineered mice with spontaneous PC, the combination of simvastatin and 5-FU significantly inhibits tumor growth. In conclusion, our study reveals the critical role of the mevalonate pathway in 5-FU resistance and proposes a clinically feasible combination therapy strategy.

Nanomedicine marvels: crafting the future of cancer therapy with innovative statin nano-formulation strategies

Statins, traditionally used for managing hyperlipidemia and cardiovascular diseases, have garnered significant interest for their potential anti-cancer properties. Research indicates that statins can inhibit critical processes in cancer development, such as apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Despite their promising anti-cancer effects, the clinical application of statins in oncology has been hampered by their inherent low solubility and bioavailability. These pharmacokinetic challenges can be effectively addressed through the use of nano-based drug delivery systems. Nano-formulations enhance the delivery and therapeutic efficacy of statins by improving their solubility, stability, and targeting ability, thus maximizing their concentration within the tumor microenvironment and minimizing systemic side effects. This review delves into the potential of nanoparticles as carriers for statins in cancer therapy. It explores the mechanisms by which statins exert their anti-cancer effects, such as through the inhibition of the mevalonate pathway, modulation of immune responses, and induction of apoptosis. Furthermore, the review examines the development of various statin-loaded nano-formulations, highlighting their advantages over conventional formulations. The novelty of this review lies in its focus on recent advancements in nanoformulations that enhance statin delivery to the tumor microenvironment. By discussing the current advancements and prospects of statin nano-formulations, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these innovative strategies can improve cancer treatment outcomes and enhance the quality of life for patients. The integration of nanotechnology with statin therapy offers a novel approach to overcoming existing therapeutic limitations and paving the way for more effective and safer cancer treatments.

Statins as anti-tumor agents: A paradigm for repurposed drugs

BACKGROUND

Statins, frequently prescribed medications, work by inhibiting the rate-limiting enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR) in the mevalonate pathway to reduce cholesterol levels. Due to their multifaceted benefits, statins are being adapted for use as cost-efficient, safe and effective anti-cancer treatments. Several studies have shown that specific types of cancer are responsive to statin medications since they rely on the mevalonate pathway for their growth and survival.

RECENT FINDINGS

Statin are a class of drugs known for their potent inhibition of cholesterol production and are typically prescribed to treat high cholesterol levels. Nevertheless, there is growing interest in repurposing statins for the treatment of malignant neoplastic diseases, often in conjunction with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The mechanism behind statin treatment includes targeting apoptosis through the BCL2 signaling pathway, regulating the cell cycle via the p53-YAP axis, and imparting epigenetic modulations by altering methylation patterns on CpG islands and histone acetylation by downregulating DNMTs and HDACs respectively. Notably, some studies have suggested a potential chemo-preventive effect, as decreased occurrence of tumor relapse and enhanced survival rate were reported in patients undergoing long-term statin therapy. However, the definitive endorsement of statin usage in cancer therapy hinges on population based clinical studies with larger patient cohorts and extended follow-up periods.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential of anti-cancer properties of statins seems to reach beyond their influence on cholesterol production. Further investigations are necessary to uncover their effects on cancer promoting signaling pathways. Given their distinct attributes, statins might emerge as promising contenders in the fight against tumorigenesis, as they appear to enhance the efficacy and address the limitations of conventional cancer treatments.

Therapeutic Effects of Statins: Promising Drug for Topical and Transdermal Administration

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors and decrease plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels. They are well tolerated, and because of their LDL-C-lowering effect, they are utilized to decrease the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. However, statins have pleiotropic effects, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer. Currently, oral administration is the only Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved route of administration for statins. However, other administration routes have demonstrated promising results in different pre-clinical and clinical studies. For instance, statins also seem beneficial in dermatitis, psoriasis, vitiligo, hirsutism, uremic pruritus, and graft-versus-host disease. Topically applied statins have been studied to treat seborrhea, acne, rhinophyma, and rosacea. They also have beneficial effects in contact dermatitis and wound healing in animal studies, (HIV) infection, osseointegration, porokeratosis, and some ophthalmologic diseases. Topical and transdermal application of statins is a non-invasive drug administration method that has shown significant results in bypassing the first-pass metabolism in the liver, thereby reducing possible adverse effects. This study reviews the multifaceted molecular and cellular impacts of statins, their topical and transdermal application, novel delivery systems, such as nanosystems for topical and transdermal administration and the challenges concerning this approach.

Induced Vascular Normalization-Can One Force Tumors to Surrender to a Better Microenvironment?

Immunotherapy has changed the way many cancers are being treated. Researchers in the field of immunotherapy and tumor immunology are investigating similar questions: How can the positive benefits achieved with immunotherapies be enhanced? Can this be achieved through combinations with other agents and if so, which ones? In our view, there is an urgent need to improve immunotherapy to make further gains in the overall survival for those patients that should benefit from immunotherapy. While numerous different approaches are being considered, our team believes that drug delivery methods along with appropriately selected small-molecule drugs and drug candidates could help reach the goal of doubling the overall survival rate that is seen in some patients that are given immunotherapeutics. This review article is prepared to address how immunotherapies should be combined with a second treatment using an approach that could realize therapeutic gains 10 years from now. For context, an overview of immunotherapy and cancer angiogenesis is provided. The major targets in angiogenesis that have modulatory effects on the tumor microenvironment and immune cells are highlighted. A combination approach that, for us, has the greatest potential for success involves treatments that will normalize the tumor's blood vessel structure and alter the immune microenvironment to support the action of immunotherapeutics. So, this is reviewed as well. Our focus is to provide an insight into some strategies that will engender vascular normalization that may be better than previously described approaches. The potential for drug delivery systems to promote tumor blood vessel normalization is considered.

New insights into the therapeutic potentials of statins in cancer

The widespread clinical use of statins has contributed to significant reductions of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Increasing preclinical and epidemiological evidences have revealed that dyslipidemia is an important risk factor for carcinogenesis, invasion and metastasis, and that statins as powerful inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase can exert prevention and intervention effects on cancers, and promote sensitivity to anti-cancer drugs. The anti-cancer mechanisms of statins include not only inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis, but also their pleiotropic effects in modulating angiogenesis, apoptosis, autophagy, tumor metastasis, and tumor microenvironment. Moreover, recent clinical studies have provided growing insights into the therapeutic potentials of statins and the feasibility of combining statins with other anti-cancer agents. Here, we provide an updated review on the application potential of statins in cancer prevention and treatment and summarize the underneath mechanisms, with focuses on data from clinical studies.

Temozolomide, Simvastatin and Acetylshikonin Combination Induces Mitochondrial-Dependent Apoptosis in GBM Cells, Which Is Regulated by Autophagy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the deadliest cancers. Temozolomide (TMZ) is the most common chemotherapy used for GBM patients. Recently, combination chemotherapy strategies have had more effective antitumor effects and focus on slowing down the development of chemotherapy resistance. A combination of TMZ and cholesterol-lowering medications (statins) is currently under investigation in in vivo and clinical trials. In our current investigation, we have used a triple-combination therapy of TMZ, Simvastatin (Simva), and acetylshikonin, and investigated its apoptotic mechanism in GBM cell lines (U87 and U251). We used viability, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), caspase-3/-7, acridine orange (AO) and immunoblotting autophagy assays. Our results showed that a TMZ/Simva/ASH combination therapy induced significantly more apoptosis compared to TMZ, Simva, ASH, and TMZ/Simva treatments in GBM cells. Apoptosis via TMZ/Simva/ASH treatment induced mitochondrial damage (increase of ROS, decrease of MMP) and caspase-3/7 activation in both GBM cell lines. Compared to all single treatments and the TMZ/Simva treatment, TMZ/Simva/ASH significantly increased positive acidic vacuole organelles. We further confirmed that the increase of AVOs during the TMZ/Simva/ASH treatment was due to the partial inhibition of autophagy flux (accumulation of LC3β-II and a decrease in p62 degradation) in GBM cells. Our investigation also showed that TMZ/Simva/ASH-induced cell death was depended on autophagy flux, as further inhibition of autophagy flux increased TMZ/Simva/ASH-induced cell death in GBM cells. Finally, our results showed that TMZ/Simva/ASH treatment potentially depends on an increase of Bax expression in GBM cells. Our current investigation might open new avenues for a more effective treatment of GBM, but further investigations are required for a better identification of the mechanisms.

Active Tumor-Targeting Nano-formulations Containing Simvastatin and Doxorubicin Inhibit Melanoma Growth and Angiogenesis

Primary melanoma aggressiveness is determined by rapid selection and growth of cellular clones resistant to conventional treatments, resulting in metastasis and recurrence. In addition, a reprogrammed tumor-immune microenvironment supports melanoma progression and response to therapy. There is an urgent need to develop selective and specific drug delivery strategies for modulating the interaction between cancer cells and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. This study proposes a novel combination therapy consisting of sequential administration of simvastatin incorporated in IL-13-functionalized long-circulating liposomes (IL-13-LCL-SIM) and doxorubicin encapsulated into PEG-coated extracellular vesicles (PEG-EV-DOX) to selectively target both tumor-associated macrophages and melanoma cells. To this end, IL-13 was conjugated to LCL-SIM which was obtained via the lipid film hydration method. EVs enriched from melanoma cells were passively loaded with doxorubicin. The cellular uptake of rhodamine-tagged nano-particles and the antiproliferative potential of the treatments by using the ELISA BrdU-colorimetric immunoassay were investigated in vitro. Subsequently, the therapeutic agents were administered i.v in B16.F10 melanoma-bearing mice, and tumor size was monitored during treatment. The molecular mechanisms of antitumor activity were investigated using angiogenic and inflammatory protein arrays and western blot analysis of invasion (HIF-1) and apoptosis markers (Bcl-xL and Bax). Quantification of oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA) was determined by HPLC. Immunohistochemical staining of angiogenic markers CD31 and VEGF and of pan-macrophage marker F4/80 was performed to validate our findings. The in vitro data showed that IL-13-functionalized LCL were preferentially taken up by tumor-associated macrophages and indicated that sequential administration of IL-13-LCL-SIM and PEG-EV-DOX had the strongest antiproliferative effect on tumor cells co-cultured with tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Accordingly, strong inhibition of tumor growth in the group treated with the sequential combination therapy was reported in vivo. Our data suggested that the antitumor action of the combined treatment was exerted through strong inhibition of several pro-angiogenic factors (VEGF, bFGF, and CD31) and oxidative stress-induced upregulation of pro-apoptotic protein Bax. This novel drug delivery strategy based on combined active targeting of both cancer cells and immune cells was able to induce a potent antitumor effect by disruption of the reciprocal interactions between TAMs and melanoma cells.

Concurrent use of statins and neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Statins are used primarily in patients with cardiovascular disease. More recently, they have demonstrated benefit in oncology patients. In vitro models have shown decreased rectal tumor cell viability in cells receiving chemoradiation and statin therapy. In vivo models have been less clear. This study aims to elucidate the impact of concurrent use of statins on the efficacy of neoadjuvant therapy for rectal cancer.

METHODS

Search of Medline, EMBASE, and CENTRAL was performed. Articles were included if they reported complete pathological response (pCR), long-term oncologic outcomes, or chemoradiotherapy-induced toxicity in patients with rectal cancer receiving concurrent statin and neoadjuvant therapy. A pairwise meta-analyses was performed using inverse variance random effects.

RESULTS

From 1564 citations, six studies with 726 patients on statin therapy (24.5% female, age: 63.6 years) and 1863 patients not on statin therapy (35.6% female, age: 60.9 years) were included. There was no significant difference in pCR rate between patients on statin therapy and patients not on statin therapy (RR 1.23, 95%CI 0.98-1.54, p = 0.08). Similarly, no difference existed between groups in long-term oncologic outcomes (5-year overall survival: RR 1.03, 95%CI 0.86-1.24, p = 0.75; 5-year disease-free survival: RR 1.04, 95%CI 0.85-1.26, p = 0.73). Chemoradiotherapy-induced toxicities were similar between groups.

CONCLUSION

The concurrent use of statin and neoadjuvant therapy did not significantly impact short- or long-term oncologic outcomes in patients with rectal cancer. Yet, despite pooling of data, this study remained inadequately powered. Larger, prospective studies are required to further elucidate the impact of statins on patients undergoing neoadjuvant therapy for rectal cancer.

Statins: a repurposed drug to fight cancer

As competitive HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR) inhibitors, statins not only reduce cholesterol and improve cardiovascular risk, but also exhibit pleiotropic effects that are independent of their lipid-lowering effects. Among them, the anti-cancer properties of statins have attracted much attention and indicated the potential of statins as repurposed drugs for the treatment of cancer. A large number of clinical and epidemiological studies have described the anticancer properties of statins, but the evidence for anticancer effectiveness of statins is inconsistent. It may be that certain molecular subtypes of cancer are more vulnerable to statin therapy than others. Whether statins have clinical anticancer effects is still an active area of research. Statins appear to enhance the efficacy and address the shortcomings associated with conventional cancer treatments, suggesting that statins should be considered in the context of combined therapies for cancer. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the potential of statins in anti-cancer treatments. We discuss the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the anti-cancer properties of statins and their effects on different malignancies. We also provide recommendations for the design of future well-designed clinical trials of the anti-cancer efficacy of statins.

The potential use of simvastatin for cancer treatment: A review

Statins, typically used to reduce lipid levels, have been rediscovered for exhibiting anticancer activities. Among them, especially simvastatin may influence the proliferation, migration, and survival of cancer cells. The concept of using statins to treat cancer has been adopted since the 1990s In vitro and in vivo experiments and cohort studies using statins have been carried out to demonstrate their antitumor effects (such as proliferation and migration impairment) by influencing inflammatory and oxidative stress-related tumorigenesis. Nevertheless, the biological mechanisms for these actions are not fully elucidated. In this review, we present an overview of the most important studies conducted from 2015 to date on the use of simvastatin in cancer therapy. This review brings the most recent perspectives and targets in epidemiological, in vitro, and in vivo studies, regarding the use of simvastatin alone or in combination with other drugs for the treatment of various types of cancer.

Statin as a Potential Chemotherapeutic Agent: Current Updates as a Monotherapy, Combination Therapy, and Treatment for Anti-Cancer Drug Resistance

Cancer is incurable because progressive phenotypic and genotypic changes in cancer cells lead to resistance and recurrence. This indicates the need for the development of new drugs or alternative therapeutic strategies. The impediments associated with new drug discovery have necessitated drug repurposing (i.e., the use of old drugs for new therapeutic indications), which is an economical, safe, and efficacious approach as it is emerged from clinical drug development or may even be marketed with a well-established safety profile and optimal dosing. Statins are inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase in cholesterol biosynthesis and are used in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, and obesity. As cholesterol is linked to the initiation and progression of cancer, statins have been extensively used in cancer therapy with a concept of drug repurposing. Many studies including in vitro and in vivo have shown that statin has been used as monotherapy to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. Moreover, it has been used as a combination therapy to mediate synergistic action to overcome anti-cancer drug resistance as well. In this review, the recent explorations are done in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials to address the action of statin either single or in combination with anti-cancer drugs to improve the chemotherapy of the cancers were discussed. Here, we discussed the emergence of statin as a lipid-lowering drug; its use to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis as a monotherapy; and its use in combination with anti-cancer drugs for its synergistic action to overcome anti-cancer drug resistance. Furthermore, we discuss the clinical trials of statins and the current possibilities and limitations of preclinical and clinical investigations.

Liposomal simvastatin sensitizes C26 murine colon carcinoma to the antitumor effects of liposomal 5-fluorouracil in vivo

5-Fluorouracil-based therapy remains the main approach in colorectal cancer, even though there are still some drawbacks, such as chemoresistance. In this study we combined 5-fluorouracil encapsulated in long-circulating liposomes with simvastatin, also encapsulated in long-circulating liposomes, that was previously proved to exert antitumor actions on the same tumor model. The production of angiogenic/inflammatory proteins was assessed by protein array and the production of markers for tumor aggressiveness (Bcl-2, Bax, and nuclear factor [NF]-κB) were determined by western blot analysis. Intratumor oxidative stress was evaluated through measurement of malondialdehyde level by HPLC, and through spectrophotometric analysis of catalytic activity of catalase and of total antioxidant capacity. Immunohistochemical analysis of tumors for CD31 expression was assessed. Intratumor activity of MMP-2 by gelatin zymography was also carried out. Our results revealed that combined therapies based on liposomal formulations exerted enhanced antitumor activities compared with combined treatment with free drugs. Sequential treatment with liposomal simvastatin and liposomal 5-fluorouracil showed the strongest antitumor activity in C26 colon carcinoma in vivo, mainly through inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. Important markers for cancer progression (Bcl-2, Bax, NF-κB, and intratumor antioxidants) showed that liposomal simvastatin might sensitize C26 cells to liposomal 5-fluorouracil treatment in both regimens tested. The outcome of simultaneous treatment with liposomal formulations was superior to sequential treatment with both liposomal types as the invasive capacity of C26 tumors was strongly increased after the latest treatment. The antitumor efficacy of combined therapy in C26 colon carcinoma might be linked to the restorative effects on proteins balance involved in tumor angiogenesis.