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Xu C, He Z, Song Y, Shao S, Yang G, Zhao J. Atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis. Front Med 2023; 17:1-17. [PMID: 36849623 DOI: 10.1007/s11684-022-0973-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
A long-held belief is that pituitary hormones bind to their cognate receptors in classical target glands to actuate their manifold functions. However, a number of studies have shown that multiple types of pituitary hormone receptors are widely expressed in non-classical target organs. Each pituitary gland-derived hormone exhibits a wide range of nonconventional biological effects in these non-classical target organs. Herein, the extra biological functions of pituitary hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and prolactin when they act on non-classical organs were summarized, defined by the novel concept of an "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis." This novel proposal explains the pathomechanisms of abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism, obesity, hypertension, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis while offering a more comprehensive and systematic insights into the coordinated regulation of environmental factors, genetic factors, and neuroendocrine hormones on human biological functions. The continued exploration of the physiology of the "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis" could enable the identification of novel therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Xu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250021, China.,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China
| | - Zhao He
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250021, China.,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China
| | - Yongfeng Song
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250021, China.,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China
| | - Shanshan Shao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250021, China.,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China
| | - Guang Yang
- Beijing Institute of Tropical Medicine, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Jiajun Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250021, China. .,Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250021, China.
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2
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Aubin AM, Lombard-Vadnais F, Collin R, Aliesky HA, McLachlan SM, Lesage S. The NOD Mouse Beyond Autoimmune Diabetes. Front Immunol 2022; 13:874769. [PMID: 35572553 PMCID: PMC9102607 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.874769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diabetes arises spontaneously in Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) mice, and the pathophysiology of this disease shares many similarities with human type 1 diabetes. Since its generation in 1980, the NOD mouse, derived from the Cataract Shinogi strain, has represented the gold standard of spontaneous disease models, allowing to investigate autoimmune diabetes disease progression and susceptibility traits, as well as to test a wide array of potential treatments and therapies. Beyond autoimmune diabetes, NOD mice also exhibit polyautoimmunity, presenting with a low incidence of autoimmune thyroiditis and Sjögren’s syndrome. Genetic manipulation of the NOD strain has led to the generation of new mouse models facilitating the study of these and other autoimmune pathologies. For instance, following deletion of specific genes or via insertion of resistance alleles at genetic loci, NOD mice can become fully resistant to autoimmune diabetes; yet the newly generated diabetes-resistant NOD strains often show a high incidence of other autoimmune diseases. This suggests that the NOD genetic background is highly autoimmune-prone and that genetic manipulations can shift the autoimmune response from the pancreas to other organs. Overall, multiple NOD variant strains have become invaluable tools for understanding the pathophysiology of and for dissecting the genetic susceptibility of organ-specific autoimmune diseases. An interesting commonality to all autoimmune diseases developing in variant strains of the NOD mice is the presence of autoantibodies. This review will present the NOD mouse as a model for studying autoimmune diseases beyond autoimmune diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marie Aubin
- Immunology-Oncology Division, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Félix Lombard-Vadnais
- Immunology-Oncology Division, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Roxanne Collin
- Immunology-Oncology Division, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- CellCarta, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Holly A. Aliesky
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Sandra M. McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Sylvie Lesage
- Immunology-Oncology Division, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Sylvie Lesage, ;
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3
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Marx A, Yamada Y, Simon-Keller K, Schalke B, Willcox N, Ströbel P, Weis CA. Thymus and autoimmunity. Semin Immunopathol 2021; 43:45-64. [PMID: 33537838 PMCID: PMC7925479 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-021-00842-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The thymus prevents autoimmune diseases through mechanisms that operate in the cortex and medulla, comprising positive and negative selection and the generation of regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Egress from the thymus through the perivascular space (PVS) to the blood is another possible checkpoint, as shown by some autoimmune/immunodeficiency syndromes. In polygenic autoimmune diseases, subtle thymic dysfunctions may compound genetic, hormonal and environmental cues. Here, we cover (a) tolerance-inducing cell types, whether thymic epithelial or tuft cells, or dendritic, B- or thymic myoid cells; (b) tolerance-inducing mechanisms and their failure in relation to thymic anatomic compartments, and with special emphasis on human monogenic and polygenic autoimmune diseases and the related thymic pathologies, if known; (c) polymorphisms and mutations of tolerance-related genes with an impact on positive selection (e.g. the gene encoding the thymoproteasome-specific subunit, PSMB11), promiscuous gene expression (e.g. AIRE, PRKDC, FEZF2, CHD4), Treg development (e.g. SATB1, FOXP3), T-cell migration (e.g. TAGAP) and egress from the thymus (e.g. MTS1, CORO1A); (d) myasthenia gravis as the prototypic outcome of an inflamed or disordered neoplastic ‘sick thymus’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Marx
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.
| | - Yosuke Yamada
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Katja Simon-Keller
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Berthold Schalke
- Department of Neurology, Bezirkskrankenhaus, University of Regensburg, 93042, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Nick Willcox
- Neurosciences Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Philipp Ströbel
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, University of Göttigen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Cleo-Aron Weis
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
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4
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McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. A transgenic mouse that spontaneously develops pathogenic TSH receptor antibodies will facilitate study of antigen-specific immunotherapy for human Graves' disease. Endocrine 2019; 66:137-148. [PMID: 31560118 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-019-02083-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Graves' hyperthyroidism can be treated but not cured. Antigen-specific immunotherapy would accomplish this goal, for which purpose an animal model is an invaluable tool. Two types of animal models are available. First, pathogenic TSHR antibodies (TSHRAb) can be induced by injecting mice with fibroblasts co-expressing the human TSHR (hTSHR) and MHC class II, or in mammals using plasmid or adenovirus vectors encoding the hTSHR or its A-subunit. Second, a mouse model that spontaneously develops pathogenic TSHRAb resembling those in human disease was recently described. This outcome was accomplished by transgenic intrathyroidal expression of the hTSHR A-subunit in NOD.H2h4 mice that are genetically predisposed to develop thyroiditis but, without the transgene, do not generate TSHRAb. Recently, novel approaches to antigen-specific immunotherapy have been tested, primarily in the induced model, by injecting TSHR A-subunit protein or cyclic TSHR peptides. T-cell tolerance has also been induced in "humanized" HLA-DR3 mice by injecting synthetic peptides predicted in silico to mimic naturally processed TSHR T-cell epitopes. Indeed, a phase 1 study based on the latter approach has been conducted in humans. In the spontaneous model (hTSHR/NOD.H2h mice), injection of soluble or nanoparticle-bearing hTSHR A-subunits had the unwanted effect of exacerbating pathogenic TSHRAb levels. A promising avenue for tolerance induction, successful in other conditions and yet to be tested with the TSHR, involves encapsulating the antigen. In conclusion, these studies provide insight into the potential outcome of immunotherapeutic approaches and emphasize the importance of a spontaneous model to test future novel, antigen-specific immunotherapies for Graves' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M McLachlan
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 100 Medical Plaza Driveway, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 100 Medical Plaza Driveway, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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5
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McLachlan SM, Aliesky HA, Rapoport B. A Mouse Thyrotropin Receptor A-Subunit Transgene Expressed in Thyroiditis-Prone Mice May Provide Insight into Why Graves' Disease Only Occurs in Humans. Thyroid 2019; 29:1138-1146. [PMID: 31184281 PMCID: PMC6707033 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2019.0260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Background: Graves' disease, caused by autoantibodies that activate the thyrotropin (TSH) receptor (TSHR), has only been reported in humans. Thyroiditis-prone NOD.H2h4 mice develop autoantibodies to thyroglobulin (Tg) and thyroid peroxidase (TPO) but not to the TSHR. Evidence supports the importance of the shed TSHR A-subunit in the initiation and/or amplification of the autoimmune response to the holoreceptor. Cells expressing the gene for the isolated A-subunit secrete A-subunit protein, a surrogate for holoreceptor A-subunit shedding. NOD.H2h4 mice with the human TSHR A-subunit targeted to the thyroid (a "self" antigen in such transgenic (Tgic) animals), unlike their wild-type (wt) siblings, spontaneously develop pathogenic TSHR antibodies to the human-TSH holoreceptor. These autoantibodies do not recognize the endogenous mouse-TSH holoreceptor and do not cause hyperthyroidism. Methods: We have now generated NOD.H2h4 mice with the mouse-TSHR A-subunit transgene targeted to the thyroid. Tgic mice and wt littermates were compared for intrathyroidal expression of the mouse A-subunit. Sera from six-month-old mice were tested for the presence of autoantibodies to Tg and TPO as well as for pathogenic TSHR antibodies (TSH binding inhibition, bioassay for thyroid stimulating antibodies) and nonpathogenic TSHR antibodies (ELISA). Results: Expression of the mouse TSHR A-subunit transgene in the thyroid was confirmed by real-time polymerase chain reaction in the Tgics and had no effect on the spontaneous development of autoantibodies to Tg or TPO. However, unlike the same NOD.H2h4 strain with the human-TSHR A-subunit target to the thyroid, mice expressing intrathyroidal mouse-TSHR A subunit failed to develop either pathogenic or nonpathogenic TSHR antibodies. The mouse TSHR A-subunit differs from the human TSHR A-subunit in terms of its amino acid sequence and has one less glycosylation site than the human TSHR A-subunit. Conclusions: Multiple genetic and environmental factors contribute to the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. The present study suggests that the TSHR A-subunit structure (possibly including posttranslational modification such as glycosylation) may explain, in part, why Graves' disease only develops in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M. McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California
- UCLA School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
- Address correspondence to: Sandra M. McLachlan, PhD, Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, B-131, Los Angeles, CA 90048
| | - Holly A. Aliesky
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California
- UCLA School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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Marín-Sánchez A, Álvarez-Sierra D, González O, Lucas-Martin A, Sellés-Sánchez A, Rudilla F, Enrich E, Colobran R, Pujol-Borrell R. Regulation of TSHR Expression in the Thyroid and Thymus May Contribute to TSHR Tolerance Failure in Graves' Disease Patients via Two Distinct Mechanisms. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1695. [PMID: 31379878 PMCID: PMC6657650 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Graves' disease (GD) involves the presence of agonistic auto-antibodies against the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR), which are responsible for the clinical symptoms. While failure of TSHR tolerance is central to GD pathogenesis, the process leading to this failure remains poorly understood. Two mechanisms intimately linked to tolerance have been proposed to explain the association of SNPs located in TSHR intron 1 to GD: (1) differential alternative splicing in the thyroid; and (2) modulation of expression in the thymus. To elucidate the relative contribution to these two mechanisms to GD pathogenesis, we analyzed the level of full-length and ST4 and ST5 isoform expression in the thyroid (n = 49) and thymus (n = 39) glands, and the influence of intron 1-associated SNPs on such expression. The results show that: (1) the level of flTSHR and ST4 expression in the thymus was unexpectedly high (20% that of the thyroid); (2) while flTSHR is the predominant isoform, the levels are similar to ST4 (ratio flTSHR/ST4 = 1.34 in the thyroid and ratio flTSHR/ST4 in the thymus = 1.93); (3) next-generation sequencing confirmed the effect of the TSHR intron 1 polymorphism on TSHR expression in the thymus with a bias of 1.5 ± 0.2 overexpression of the protective allele in the thymus compared to the thyroid; (4) GD-associated intron 1 SNPs did not influence TSHR alternative splicing of ST4 and ST5 in the thyroid and thymus; and (5) three-color confocal imaging showed that TSHR is associated with both thymocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells in the thymus. Our findings confirm the effect of intron 1 polymorphisms on thymic TSHR expression and we present evidence against an effect on the relative expression of isoforms. The high level of ST4 expression in the thymus and its distribution within the tissue suggest that this would most likely be the isoform that induces central tolerance to TSHR thus omitting most of the hinge and transmembrane portion. The lack of central tolerance to a large portion of TSHR may explain the relatively high frequency of autoimmunity related to TSHR and its clinical consequence, GD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Marín-Sánchez
- Immunology Division, FOCIS Center of Excellence, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.,Diagnostic Immunology Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Álvarez-Sierra
- Diagnostic Immunology Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oscar González
- Surgery Department, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Lucas-Martin
- Endocrinology Division, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias Pujol, Badalona, Spain
| | | | - Francesc Rudilla
- Immunogenetics and Histocompatibility Laboratory, Blood and Tissue Bank, Transfusional Medicine Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Emma Enrich
- Immunogenetics and Histocompatibility Laboratory, Blood and Tissue Bank, Transfusional Medicine Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roger Colobran
- Immunology Division, FOCIS Center of Excellence, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.,Diagnostic Immunology Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ricardo Pujol-Borrell
- Immunology Division, FOCIS Center of Excellence, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.,Diagnostic Immunology Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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7
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Latif R, Mezei M, Morshed SA, Ma R, Ehrlich R, Davies TF. A Modifying Autoantigen in Graves' Disease. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1008-1020. [PMID: 30822352 PMCID: PMC6455603 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The TSH receptor (TSHR) is the major autoantigen in Graves' disease (GD). Bioinformatic analyses predict the existence of several human TSHR isoforms from alternative splicing, which can lead to the coexpression of multiple receptor forms. The most abundant of these is TSHRv1.3. In silico modeling of TSHRv1.3 demonstrated the structural integrity of this truncated receptor isoform and its potential binding of TSH. Tissue profiling revealed wide expression of TSHRv1.3, with a predominant presence in thyroid, bone marrow, thymus, and adipose tissue. To gain insight into the role of this v1.3 receptor isoform in thyroid pathophysiology, we cloned the entire open reading frame into a mammalian expression vector. Immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that both TSHR-stimulating antibody and human TSH could bind v1.3. Furthermore, TSHRv1.3 inhibited the stimulatory effect of TSH and TSHR-Ab MS-1 antibody on TSHR-induced cAMP generation in a dose-dependent manner. To confirm the antigenicity of v1.3, we used a peptide ELISA against two different epitopes. Of 13 GD samples, 11 (84.6%) were positive for a carboxy terminal peptide and 10 (76.9%) were positive with a junction region peptide. To demonstrate that intracellular v1.3 could serve as an autoantigen and modulate disease, we used double-transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells that expressed both green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged TSHRv1.3 and full-length TSHR. We then induced cell stress and apoptosis using a TSHR monoclonal antibody and observed the culture supernatant contained v1.3-GFP protein, demonstrating the release of the intracellular receptor variant by this mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rauf Latif
- Thyroid Research Unit, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, New York
- Correspondence: Rauf Latif, PhD, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Atran Berg 4-43, 1428 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10029. E-mail:
| | - Mihaly Mezei
- Department of Structural and Chemical Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Syed A Morshed
- Thyroid Research Unit, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Risheng Ma
- Thyroid Research Unit, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Rachel Ehrlich
- Thyroid Research Unit, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Terry F Davies
- Thyroid Research Unit, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, New York
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8
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McLachlan SM, Aliesky HA, Rapoport B. Nanoparticles Bearing TSH Receptor Protein and a Tolerogenic Molecule Do Not Induce Immune Tolerance but Exacerbate Thyroid Autoimmunity in hTSHR/NOD. H2h4 Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:2570-2577. [PMID: 30944161 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic NOD.H2h4 mice that express the human (h) TSHR A-subunit in the thyroid gland spontaneously develop pathogenic TSHR autoantibodies resembling those in patients with Graves disease. Nanoparticles coupled to recombinant hTSHR A-subunit protein and a tolerogenic molecule (ligand for the endogenous aryl-hydrocarbon receptor; ITE) were injected i.p. four times at weekly intervals into hTSHR/NOD.H2h4 mice with the goal of blocking TSHR Ab development. Unexpectedly, in transgenic mice, injecting TSHR A-subunit-ITE nanoparticles (not ITE-nanoparticles or buffer) accelerated and enhanced the development of pathogenic TSHR Abs measured by inhibition of TSH binding to the TSHR. Nonpathogenic TSHR Abs (ELISA) were enhanced in transgenics and induced in wild-type littermates. Serendipitously, these findings have important implications for disease pathogenesis: development of Graves TSHR Abs is limited by the availability of A-subunit protein, which is shed from membrane bound TSHR, expressed at low levels in the thyroid. The enhanced TSHR Ab response following injected TSHR A-subunit protein-nanoparticles is reminiscent of the transient increase in pathogenic TSHR Abs following the release of thyroid autoantigens after radio-iodine therapy in Graves patients. However, in the hTSHR/NOD.H2h4 model, enhancement is specific for TSHR Abs, with Abs to thyroglobulin and thyroid peroxidase remaining unchanged. In conclusion, despite the inclusion of a tolerogenic molecule, injected nanoparticles coated with TSHR A-subunit protein enhanced and accelerated development of pathogenic TSHR Abs in hTSHR/NOD. NOD.H2h4 These findings emphasize the need for sufficient TSHR A-subunit protein to activate the immune system and the generation of stimulatory TSHR Abs in genetically predisposed individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M McLachlan
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048; and .,David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | | | - Basil Rapoport
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048; and.,David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
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9
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McLachlan SM, Aliesky HA, Garcia P, Banuelos B, Rapoport B. Thyroid Hemiagenesis in a Thyroiditis Prone Mouse Strain. Eur Thyroid J 2018; 7:187-192. [PMID: 30283736 PMCID: PMC6140602 DOI: 10.1159/000490700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid hemiagenesis, a rare congenital condition detected by ultrasound screening of the neck, is usually not manifested clinically in humans. This condition has been reported in mice with hypothyroidism associated with induced deficiency in paired box 8 and NK2 homeobox 1, sonic hedgehog, or T-box 1. Unexpectedly, we observed thyroid hemiagenesis in NOD.H2h4 mice, an unusual strain that spontaneously develops iodide enhanced thyroid autoimmunity but remains euthyroid. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS First, to compare mice with thyroid hemiagenesis versus bilobed littermates for serum T4, autoantibodies to thyroglobulin (ELISA) and thyroid peroxidase (TPO; flow cytometry with eukaryotic cells expressing mouse TPO), gross anatomy, and thyroid histology; second, to estimate the percentage of mice with thyroid hemiagenesis in the NOD.H2h4 mice we have studied over 6 years. RESULTS Thyroid hemiagenesis was observed in 3 of 1,025 NOD.H2h4 mice (2 females, 1 male; 0.3$). Two instances of hemiagenesis were in wild-type females and one in a transgenic male expressing the human TSHR A-subunit in the thyroid. Two mice had very large unilobed glands, as in some human cases with this condition. Thyroid lymphocytic infiltration, serum T4, and the levels of thyroid autoantibodies were similar in mice with thyroid hemiagenesis and bilobed littermates. CONCLUSIONS Unlike hypothyroidism associated with hemiagenesis in transcription factor knockout mice, hemiagenesis in euthyroid NOD.H2h4 mice occurs spontaneously and is phenotypically similar to that occasionally observed in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M. McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
- UCLA School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- *Sandra M. McLachlan, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd, B-131, Los Angeles, CA 90048 (USA), E-Mail
| | - Holly A. Aliesky
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Priscilla Garcia
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Bianca Banuelos
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
- UCLA School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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10
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McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. Thyroid Autoantibodies Display both "Original Antigenic Sin" and Epitope Spreading. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1845. [PMID: 29326719 PMCID: PMC5742354 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence for original antigenic sin in spontaneous thyroid autoimmunity is revealed by autoantibody interactions with immunodominant regions on thyroid autoantigens, thyroglobulin (Tg), thyroid peroxidase (TPO), and the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) A-subunit. In contrast, antibodies induced by immunization of rabbits or mice recognize diverse epitopes. Recognition of immunodominant regions persists despite fluctuations in autoantibody levels following treatment or over time. The enhancement of spontaneously arising pathogenic TSHR antibodies in transgenic human thyrotropin receptor/NOD.H2h4 mice by injecting a non-pathogenic form of TSHR A-subunit protein also provides evidence for original antigenic sin. From other studies, antigen presentation by B cells, not dendritic cells, is likely responsible for original antigenic sin. Recognition of restricted epitopes on the large glycosylated thyroid autoantigens (60-kDa A-subunit, 100-kDa TPO, and 600-kDa Tg) facilitates exploring the amino acid locations in the immunodominant regions. Epitope spreading has also been revealed by autoantibodies in thyroid autoimmunity. In humans, and in mice that spontaneously develop autoimmunity to all three thyroid autoantigens, autoantibodies develop first to Tg and later to TPO and the TSHR A-subunit. The pattern of intermolecular epitope spreading is related in part to the thyroidal content of Tg, TPO and TSHR A-subunit and to the molecular sizes of these proteins. Importantly, the epitope spreading pattern provides a rationale for future antigen-specific manipulation to block the development of all thyroid autoantibodies by inducing tolerance to Tg, first in the autoantigen cascade. Because of its abundance, Tg may be the autoantigen of choice to explore antigen-specific treatment, preventing the development of pathogenic TSHR antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Schlüter A, Horstmann M, Diaz-Cano S, Plöhn S, Stähr K, Mattheis S, Oeverhaus M, Lang S, Flögel U, Berchner-Pfannschmidt U, Eckstein A, Banga JP. Genetic immunization with mouse thyrotrophin hormone receptor plasmid breaks self-tolerance for a murine model of autoimmune thyroid disease and Graves' orbitopathy. Clin Exp Immunol 2017; 191:255-267. [PMID: 29058307 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Experimental models of Graves' hyperthyroid disease accompanied by Graves' orbitopathy (GO) can be induced efficiently in susceptible inbred strains of mice by immunization by electroporation of heterologous human TSH receptor (TSHR) A-subunit plasmid. In this study, we report on the development of a bona fide murine model of autoimmune Graves' disease induced with homologous mouse TSHR A-subunit plasmid. Autoimmune thyroid disease in the self-antigen model was accompanied by GO and characterized by histopathology of hyperplastic glands with large thyroid follicular cells. Examination of orbital tissues showed significant inflammation in extra-ocular muscle with accumulation of T cells and macrophages together with substantial deposition of adipose tissue. Notably, increased levels of brown adipose tissue were present in the orbital tissue of animals undergoing experimental GO. Further analysis of inflammatory loci by 19 F-magnetic resonance imaging showed inflammation to be confined to orbital muscle and optic nerve, but orbital fat showed no difference in inflammatory signs in comparison to control β-Gal-immunized animals. Pathogenic antibodies induced to mouse TSHR were specific for the self-antigen, with minimal cross-reactivity to human TSHR. Moreover, compared to other self-antigen models of murine Graves' disease induced in TSHR knock-out mice, the repertoire of autoantibodies to mouse TSHR generated following the breakdown of thymic self-tolerance is different to those that arise when tolerance is not breached immunologically, as in the knock-out models. Overall, we show that mouse TSHR A-subunit plasmid immunization by electroporation overcomes tolerance to self-antigen to provide a faithful model of Graves' disease and GO.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schlüter
- Molecular Ophthalmology, Departments of Ophthalmology University Hospital Essen, Germany.,Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - M Horstmann
- Molecular Ophthalmology, Departments of Ophthalmology University Hospital Essen, Germany
| | - S Diaz-Cano
- Department of Histopathology, King's College Hospital NHS, London, UK
| | - S Plöhn
- Molecular Ophthalmology, Departments of Ophthalmology University Hospital Essen, Germany
| | - K Stähr
- Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - S Mattheis
- Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - M Oeverhaus
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - S Lang
- Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - U Flögel
- Experimental Cardiovascular Imaging, Department of Molecular Cardiology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | | | - A Eckstein
- Molecular Ophthalmology, Departments of Ophthalmology University Hospital Essen, Germany.,Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - J P Banga
- Molecular Ophthalmology, Departments of Ophthalmology University Hospital Essen, Germany
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McLachlan SM, Aliesky H, Banuelos B, Hee SSQ, Rapoport B. Variable Effects of Dietary Selenium in Mice That Spontaneously Develop a Spectrum of Thyroid Autoantibodies. Endocrinology 2017; 158:3754-3764. [PMID: 28938453 PMCID: PMC5695827 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Selenium (Se) is a critical element in thyroid function, and variable dietary Se intake influences immunity. Consequently, dietary Se could influence development of thyroid autoimmunity and provide an adjunct to treat autoimmune thyroid dysfunction. Nonobese diabetic (NOD).H2h4 mice spontaneously develop autoantibodies to thyroglobulin (Tg) and thyroid peroxidase (TPO). This mouse strain expressing a human thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) A-subunit transgene in the thyroid also develops pathogenic TSHR autoantibodies. In this report, we investigated whether dietary Se influences these immune processes. Male and female wild-type and transgenic NOD.H2h4 mice were maintained on normal-, low-, or high-Se (0.1, 0, or 1.0 mg/kg) rodent diets. After 4 months, Se serum levels were extremely low or significantly increased on 0 or 1.0 mg/kg Se, respectively. Varying Se intake affected Tg antibody (TgAb) levels after 2 (but not 4) months; conversely, TPO antibody (TPOAb) levels were altered by dietary Se after 4 (but not 2) months. These data correspond to the earlier development of TgAb than TPOAb in NOD.H2h4 mice. In males, TgAb levels were enhanced by high Se and in females by low Se intake. Se intake had no effect on pathogenic TSHR autoantibodies in TSHR transgenic NOD.H2h4 females. In conclusion, in susceptible NOD.H2h4 mice, we found no evidence that a higher dietary Se intake ameliorates thyroid autoimmunity by reducing autoantibodies to Tg, TPO, or the TSHR. Instead, our finding that low dietary Se potentiates the development of autoantibodies to Tg and TPO in females is consistent with reports in humans of an increased prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in low-Se regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M. McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, and University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Holly Aliesky
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, and University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Bianca Banuelos
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, and University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Shane S. Que Hee
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences and Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute, and University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
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McLachlan SM, Lesage S, Collin R, Banuelos B, Aliesky HA, Rapoport B. Genes Outside the Major Histocompatibility Complex Locus Are Linked to the Development of Thyroid Autoantibodies and Thyroiditis in NOD.H2h4 Mice. Endocrinology 2017; 158:702-713. [PMID: 28323998 PMCID: PMC5460802 DOI: 10.1210/en.2016-1875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Thyroiditis and autoantibodies to thyroglobulin (TgAb) and thyroid peroxidase (TPOAb) develop spontaneously in NOD.H2h4 mice, a phenotype enhanced by dietary iodine. NOD.H2h4 mice were derived by introducing the major histocompatibility class (MHC) molecule I-Ak from B10.A(4R) mice to nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. Apart from I-Ak, the genes responsible for the NOD.H2h4 phenotype are unknown. Extending serendipitous observations from crossing BALB/c to NOD.H2h4 mice, thyroid autoimmunity was investigated in both genders of the F1, F2, and the second-generation backcross of F1 to NOD.H2h4 (N2). Medium-density linkage analysis was performed on thyroid autoimmunity traits in F2 and N2 progeny. TgAb develop before TPOAb and were measured after 8 and 16 weeks of iodide exposure; TPOAb and thyroiditis were studied at 16 weeks. TgAb, TPOAb, and thyroiditis, absent in BALB/c and F1 mice, developed in most NOD.H2h4 and in more N2 than F2 progeny. No linkages were observed in F2 progeny, probably because of the small number of autoantibody-positive mice. In N2 progeny (equal numbers of males and females), a chromosome 17 locus is linked to thyroiditis and TgAb and is suggestively linked to TPOAb. This locus includes MHC region genes from B10.A(4R) mice (such as I-Ak and Tnf, the latter involved in thyrocyte apoptosis) and genes from NOD mice such as Satb1, which most likely plays a role in immune tolerance. In conclusion, MHC and non-MHC genes, encoded within the chromosome 17 locus from both B10.A(4R) and NOD strains, are most likely responsible for the Hashimoto disease-like phenotype of NOD.H2h4 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M. McLachlan
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Sylvie Lesage
- Department of Immunology-Oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montréal, Québec H1T 2M4, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Roxanne Collin
- Department of Immunology-Oncology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montréal, Québec H1T 2M4, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Bianca Banuelos
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Holly A. Aliesky
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Basil Rapoport
- Thyroid Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
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