Guidelines for the collaborative care of glaucoma patients and suspects by ophthalmologists and optometrists in Australia

Standard automated perimetry for glaucoma and diseases of the retina and visual pathways: current and future perspectives

Static automated perimetry (SAP) remains a mainstay of functional assessment of the visual field in diseases of the visual pathway, such as glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration. The fundamental psychophysical task of responding to stimuli of different levels of contrast has remained minimally changed since its inception in the 1980s, and this is potentially the root of several unresolved issues involving the technique. Enduring issues include the optimisation of SAP parameters for maximising defect detection, the influence of subjective behaviour on the response, structure-function discordance, and ageing- and disease-related changes of the visual pathway. Addressing these issues has been a focus of our research program and is the subject of this manuscript. We will review some of the basic psychophysical principles and methods that have contributed to the development of SAP and their contributions to its output measurements. Parameters that are interrogated include stimulus size and background luminance and their modification to improve defect defection in glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration. We propose frameworks for optimising testing parameters and leveraging the results for changing clinical care. In our pursuit of optimising the structure-function relationship in the eye, several areas of research have been developed and explored, including: the reconciliation of subjective responses in perimetry; by minimising sources of biases, such as Method of Limits we have been able to equate static and kinetic perimetry outputs in relation to underlying structural loci. This also formed the basis for our clustering framework, which groups together statistically similar structural and functional test locations to maximise structure-function concordance. Throughout the manuscript, we review the scientific underpinnings of clinical measurements, framing application into real-world patients to improve clinical practice.

Systematic review and appraisal of quality, definitions and treatment recommendations of clinical guidelines for glaucoma suspects

BACKGROUND

To appraise the quality of clinical practice guidelines for glaucoma suspects, and to assess their consistency for how a 'glaucoma suspect' is defined and their recommendations for treatment initiation for such individuals.

METHODS

This study included all documents that self-identified as a 'guideline' and provided recommendation(s) for the clinical care of glaucoma suspects. The quality of eligible guidelines was assessed using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II instrument.

RESULTS

From 1196 records retrieved from comprehensive searches and two records manually included, 20 clinical practice guidelines were deemed eligible. Based on an appraisal using the AGREE II instrument, 16 (80%) guidelines had ≤2 domains with scores >66%. Overall, the lowest scoring domains were for applicability, editorial independence and stakeholder involvement. There was relatively poor agreement across the guidelines for what defines a 'glaucoma suspect' or 'primary open angle glaucoma [POAG] suspect', as well as the recommendations and criteria for treatment initiation in these populations. There was better agreement for the definition and recommendations for treatment initiation for 'primary angle closure suspects'.

CONCLUSIONS

There is substantial room to improve the methodological quality of most current international clinical guidelines for glaucoma suspects. Clinicians should consider this finding when using such guidelines to inform their care of glaucoma suspects. Substantial variation in the definition of a POAG suspect and recommendations for treatment initiation underscores important gaps in the current evidence for the accurate prediction of glaucoma development and treatment effectiveness in these individuals.

Evolution of first-line glaucoma therapy, 2007-2018: a population-based analysis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the long-term evolution of first-line glaucoma therapy (FLGT) initiated by ophthalmologists and optometrists.

DESIGN

Retrospective population-based study using validated provincial health care databases.

PARTICIPANTS

194,759 Ontario residents, 66 years of age or older, who received FLGT between 2007 and 2018.

METHODS

A total of 194,759 individuals from 12 annual cohorts were enrolled, and rates of first-line medical treatment (prostaglandin analogue [PGA], beta-blocker, alpha-2-agonist, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitor) and laser trabeculoplasty (LT) were calculated. Provider (ophthalmologist or optometrist) rates also were assessed.

RESULTS

Across the entire study period, of the 194,759 enrolled individuals who received FLGT, 60.2% initially received medical treatment and 39.8% underwent LT. Approximately 94.6% were treated by ophthalmologists. PGA therapy was the most common therapy prior to 2010, whereupon LT became the most common FLGT. By 2015, LT exceeded the total of all medications as FLGT. The annual rate of initial medication prescriptions by optometrists rose to 101.4 per 100,000 population between 2011 and 2018. In 2018, PGA and non-PGA prescription rates by ophthalmologists were 2.6 and 5.0 times higher, respectively, than prescription rates by optometrists.

CONCLUSION

LT therapy has become the most common FLGT for Ontario residents 66 years of age or older. PGAs remain the most frequently prescribed glaucoma medication. While ophthalmologists continue to provide the majority of FLGT, optometrists now provide a small but growing fraction of FLGT following the introduction of glaucoma medication prescribing privileges.

Which glaucoma patients benefit from 10-2 visual field testing? Proposing the functional vulnerability zone framework

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

A method for determining 10-2 deployment in glaucoma with the goal of detecting additional visual field sensitivity for the purpose of functional monitoring is proposed.

BACKGROUND

To provide a pilot method for determining when to deploy the 10-2 visual field (VF) test grid in glaucoma by characterising the 'functional vulnerability zone'.

METHODS

The cross-sectional 24-2 (central 12 locations) and 10-2 VF results from 133 eyes of 133 glaucoma subjects were used to describe the central Hill of Vision using VF sensitivity. The 'volume' (defined using arbitrary units, A.U.) under the Hill was calculated. A greater A.U. on the 10-2 indicated a functional vulnerability zone (FVZ), signifying additional clinical dynamic range for potential future monitoring. The main outcome measures were calculated A.U. and 24-2 factors which were significantly related to A.U. differences between 24-2 and 10-2.

RESULTS

Over 55% of patients had an FVZ (A.U. greater using 10-2). Several 24-2 features (worse mean deviation, worse central 24-2 mean defect, and a higher proportion of defective locations) were significant in the FVZ cohort compared to non-FVZ. 24-2 mean deviation levels at which 10-2 may be favoured were low at -3.16 to -3.62 dB. Specifically, 5 or more defective central 24-2 test locations were associated with an FVZ. Subjects exhibiting a less severe defect on the 10-2 were more likely to have an FVZ, indicating its potential for future VF monitoring.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors propose several clinical markers, focussing on the 24-2, which can guide clinicians on when the 10-2 may have utility in glaucoma assessment. The authors provide a pilot reference spreadsheet for clinicians to visualise the likelihood of 10-2 utility in the context of an FVZ.

Implementation and scalability of shared care models for chronic eye disease: a realist assessment informed by health system stakeholders in Finland, the United Kingdom, and Australia

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Several health systems have implemented innovative models of care which share the management of patients with chronic eye diseases between ophthalmologists and optometrists. These models have demonstrated positive outcomes for health systems including increased access for patients, service efficiency and cost-savings. This study aims to understand factors which support successful implementation and scalability of these models of care.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 key health system stakeholders (clinicians, managers, administrators, policy-makers) in Finland, United Kingdom and Australia between October 2018 and February 2020. Data were analyzed using a realist framework to identify the contexts, mechanisms of action, and outcomes of sustained and emerging shared care schemes.

RESULTS

Five key themes relating to successful implementation of shared care were identified as (1) clinician-led solutions, (2) redistributing teams, (3) building inter-disciplinary trust, (4) using evidence for buy-in, and (5) standardized care protocols. Scalability was found to be supported by (6) financial incentives, (7) integrated information systems, (8) local governance, and (9) a need for evidence of longer-term health and economic benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

The themes and program theories presented in this paper should be considered when testing and scaling shared eye care schemes to optimize benefits and promote sustainability.

Shared Care and Virtual Clinics for Glaucoma in a Hospital Setting

Glaucoma patients require lifelong management, and the prevalence of glaucoma is expected to increase, resulting in capacity problems in many hospital eye departments. New models of care delivery are needed to offer requisite capacity. This review evaluates two alternative schemes for glaucoma care within a hospital, i.e., shared care (SC) and virtual clinics (VCs), whereby non-medical staff are entrusted with more responsibilities, and compares these schemes with the “traditional” ophthalmologist-led outpatient service (standard care). A literature search was conducted in three large bibliographic databases (PubMed, Embase, and Trip), and the abstracts from the prior five annual meetings of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology were consulted. Twenty-nine were included in the review (14 on SC and 15 on VCs). Patients with low risk of vision loss were considered suitable for these approaches. Among the non-medical staff, optometrists were the most frequently involved. The quality of both schemes was good and improved with the non-medical staff being trained in glaucoma care. No evidence was found on patients feeling disadvantaged by the lack of a doctor visit. Both schemes increased the hospital’s efficiency. Both SC and VCs are promising approaches to tackle the upcoming capacity problems of hospital-based glaucoma care.

Glaucoma Community Care: Does Ongoing Shared Care Work?

Purpose:

We assessed a novel, public, vertical integrated care model for glaucoma management in the community.

Methods:

This study was a retrospective, longitudinal study of 266 patients diagnosed or suspected of glaucoma. Patients were stratified to either ongoing ophthalmology-led (n = 81) or optometry-led shared care (n = 185). Demographics and clinical characteristics, including the re-referral rate and timeliness of follow up were analysed.

Results:

Just under half (565/1224, 46%) of all follow up consultations over the total study period of 45 months were seen in optometry-led care, with a re-referral rate to ophthalmology of 21%. Treated patients showed a median intraocular pressure reduction of 20% and a median time delay of just two days between the actual and recommended review period.

Conclusions:

Shared care provides an effective option for managing the ongoing care burden in chronic stable glaucoma cases at low risk of vision loss.

Evaluation of a hospital-based integrated model of eye care for diabetic retinopathy assessment: a multimethod study

OBJECTIVES

Diabetic eye disease is a leading cause of blindness but can be mitigated by regular eye assessment. A framework of issues, developed from the literature of barriers to eye assessment, was used to structure an examination of perceptions of a new model of care for diabetic retinopathy from the perspective of staff using the model, and health professionals referring patients to the new service.

DESIGN

Multimethod: interviews and focus groups, and a separate survey.

SETTING

A new clinic based on an integrated model of care was established at a hospital in outer metropolitan Sydney, Australia in 2017. Funded jointly by Centre for Eye Health (CFEH) and the hospital, the clinic was equipped and staffed by optometrists who work alongside the ophthalmologists in the existing hospital eye clinic.

PARTICIPANTS

Five (of seven) hospital staff working in the clinic (ophthalmologists and administrative officers) or referring to it from other departments (endocrinologists); nine optometrists from CFEH who developed or worked in the clinic; 10 community-based optometrists as potential referrers.

RESULTS

The new clinic was considered to have addressed known barriers to eye assessment, including access, assistance for patients unable/unwilling to organise eye checks and efficient management of human resources. The clinic optimised known drivers of this model of care: providing clear scope of practice and protocols for shared care between optometrists and ophthalmologists, good communication between referrers and eye professionals and a collegial approach promoting interprofessional trust. Remaining areas of concern were few referrals from general practitioners, fewer referrals from hospital endocrinologists than expected and issues with stretched administrative capacity. There were also perceived mismatches between the priorities of hospital management and aims of the clinic.

CONCLUSIONS

The new model was considered to have addressed many of the barriers to assessment. While there remain issues with the model, there were also unexpected benefits.

Anterior Chamber Angle Evaluation Using Gonioscopy: Consistency and Agreement between Optometrists and Ophthalmologists

SIGNIFICANCE

In our intermediate-tier glaucoma care clinic, we demonstrate fair to moderate agreement in gonioscopy examination between optometrists and ophthalmologists, but excellent agreement when considering open versus closed angles. We highlight the need for increased consistency in the evaluation and recording of angle status using gonioscopy.

PURPOSE

The consistency of gonioscopy results obtained by different clinicians is not known but is important in moving toward practice modalities such as telemedicine and collaborative care clinics. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the description and concordance of gonioscopy results among different practitioners.

METHODS

The medical records of 101 patients seen within a collaborative care glaucoma clinic who had undergone gonioscopic assessment by two clinicians (one optometrist and either one general ophthalmologist [n = 50] or one glaucoma specialist [n = 51]) were reviewed. The gonioscopy records were evaluated for their descriptions of deepest structure seen, trabecular pigmentation, iris configuration, and other features. These were compared between clinicians (optometrist vs. ophthalmologist) and against the final diagnosis.

RESULTS

Overall, 51.9 and 59.8% of angles were graded identically in terms of deepest visible structure when comparing between optometrist versus general ophthalmologist and optometrist versus glaucoma specialist, respectively. The concordance increased when considering ±1 of the grade (67.4 and 78.5%, respectively), and agreement with the final diagnosis was high (>90%). Variations in angle grading other than naming structures were observed (2.0, 30, and 3.9% for optometrist, general ophthalmologist, and glaucoma specialist, respectively). Most of the time, trabecular pigmentation or iris configuration was not described.

CONCLUSIONS

Fair to moderate concordance in gonioscopy was achieved between optometrists and ophthalmologists in a collaborative care clinic in which there is consistent feedback and clinical review. To move toward unified medical records and a telemedicine model, improved consistency of record keeping and angle description is required.

Glaucoma referrals from primary care and subsequent hospital management in an urban Australian hospital

BACKGROUND

Public hospital ophthalmology services are in high demand and patients requiring medical or surgical intervention for glaucoma may worsen while awaiting care. In Australia, tertiary hospital care requires a referral from primary care providers. This study investigates the quality of glaucoma referrals received at a tertiary public hospital in Australia, and describes the types of glaucoma cases referred for hospital management.

METHODS

An investigation of 200 sequential glaucoma referrals received at a major Australian public hospital from 2013-2016, and the subsequent hospital management. A clinical file audit was made of patient medical records, including referral letters to extract the referral content, and the hospital glaucoma diagnostic outcomes and patient management.

RESULTS

Most referrals came from optometrists (72 per cent) and general practitioners (22 per cent) with the remainder from other specialists. The majority of the referrals contained less than 50 per cent of the key clinical and demographic parameters. Referrals from optometrists provided more ophthalmic information (visual acuity, visual field, intraocular pressure, ocular history). Referrals from general practitioners contained more medical information (systemic co-morbidities medication and allergies). The median wait-time from referral to hospital appointment was 400 days. Of patients attending a hospital appointment, 59 per cent required surgical or medical management, and 16 per cent did not have glaucoma. Overall 18 per cent were discharged, with no differences noted by referral content or referring practitioner.

CONCLUSION

Most referrals did not include useful diagnostic information on ocular, medical and social risks for glaucoma. There is an opportunity to improve targeting of primary care referrals for glaucoma, since patients who were discharged immediately after their hospital appointment are exacerbating the long hospital wait-time. Better information transfer may help to identify patients requiring more urgent intervention. A standardised referral template and guidelines would support collaborative care and streamline access to hospital services.

Impact of referral refinement on management of glaucoma suspects in Australia

BACKGROUND

In ageing populations, the prevalence of chronic diseases such as glaucoma is projected to increase, placing additional demands on limited health-care resources. In the UK, the demand for secondary care in hospital eye clinics was inflated by high rates of false positive glaucoma referrals. Collaborative care models incorporating referral refinement, whereby glaucoma suspect referrals are triaged by suitably trained optometrists through further testing, can potentially reduce false positive referrals. This study examined the impact of a referral refinement model on the accuracy of glaucoma referrals in Australia.

METHODS

Optometrist-initiated glaucoma suspect referrals to the Glaucoma Management Clinic (Sydney, Australia) were prospectively recruited. Glaucoma suspect referrals arising from two pathways were eligible for inclusion, either directly from a community optometrist (standard care) or following comprehensive assessment at the Centre for Eye Health (referral refinement). Main outcome measures were the positive predictive value and false positive rate of referrals. The impact of referral letter content on management outcomes was also investigated.

RESULTS

Of 464 referrals received between March 2015 and June 2018, 252 were for treatment of naïve glaucoma suspects and eligible for inclusion. Following ophthalmological assessment, 45.6 per cent (n = 115/252) were prescribed treatment for open angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Positive predictive value of community optometry referrals was 33.8 per cent (n = 25/74) and 50.6 per cent (n = 90/178) following referral refinement. The first visit discharge (false positive) rate was 26 per cent (n = 19/74) for community referrals compared to four per cent (n = 8/178) with referral refinement. Positive predictive value increased with the number of abnormal clinical examination findings associated with referral (χ² test, p < 0.0001). The number of abnormal findings reported in referrals was significantly higher with referral refinement compared to without (n = 1.9 versus 1.5, t-test, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Referral refinement can improve the diagnostic accuracy of optometry-initiated referrals for glaucoma suspects in Australia, thereby decreasing unnecessary referrals to hospital and other secondary clinics.

Improving Patient Access and Reducing Costs for Glaucoma with Integrated Hospital and Community Care: A Case Study from Australia

Introduction:

Glaucoma, a chronic eye disease requires regular monitoring and treatment to prevent vision-loss. In Australia, most public ophthalmology departments are overburdened. Community Eye Care is a ‘collaborative’ care model, involving community-based optometrist assessment and ‘virtual review’ by ophthalmologists to manage low-risk patients. C-EYE-C was implemented at one Australian hospital. This study aims to determine whether C-EYE-C improves access to care and better utilises resources, compared to hospital-based care.

Methods:

A clinical and financial audit was conducted to compare access to care and health system costs for hospital care and C-EYE-C. Attendance, wait-time, patient outcomes, and the average cost per encounter were calculated. A weighted kappa assessed agreement between the optometrist and ophthalmologist decisions.

Results:

There were 503 low-risk referrals, hospital (n = 182) and C-EYE-C (n = 321). C-EYE-C had higher attendance (81.6% vs 68.7%, p = 0.001); and shorter appointment wait-time (89 vs 386 days, p < 0.001). Following C-EYE-C, 57% of patients avoided hospital; with 39% requiring glaucoma management. C-EYE-C costs were 22% less than hospital care. There was substantial agreement between optometrists and ophthalmologist for diagnosis (k = 0.69, CI 0.61–0.76) and management (k = 0.66, CI 0.57–0.74).

Discussion:

C-EYE-C showed higher attendance, and reduced wait-times and health system costs.

Conclusions:

Upscale of the C-EYE-C model should be considered to further improve capacity of public eye services in Australia.

Determining patient preferences in a glaucoma service: A discrete choice experiment

IMPORTANCE

Patient perspectives are crucial in informing design of acceptable services.

BACKGROUND

This study determined patient preferences in glaucoma care.

DESIGN

A discrete choice experiment was used to evaluate the relative importance of out-of-pocket costs, waiting time, continuity of care, service location and expertise.

PARTICIPANTS

Ninety-eight glaucoma suspects or glaucoma patients were recruited from one public and two private clinics in Sydney.

METHODS

Twelve choice-tasks were presented in random order and forced-choice preferences were elicited. Choice data were analysed using a multinominal logit model (NLOGIT 4.0).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The relative importance and the likelihood of choosing services with each attribute were determined. Willingness-to-pay and willingness-to-wait were calculated. Analyses were stratified by whether the patient attended a public or private glaucoma clinic and other demographic features.

RESULTS

Choice was influenced by four or five attributes: greater clinician expertise, the same clinician each visit, lower out-of-pocket costs and shorter wait times (all P < .05). Respondents were willing to pay an additional (Australian dollars) $325 (95% confidence interval [CI] 188-389) to see a senior eye doctor, and $87 (95% CI 60-116) to see the same clinician each visit. Respondents were willing to wait for these attributes; however, the estimates had wide confidence intervals and were beyond the range tested. Private patients had a stronger preference for expertise and continuity of care compared to public patients.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Expertise and continuity of care were important to glaucoma patients in this setting, and they were willing to pay out-of-pocket and concede longer waiting times to secure these preferences.

Journey to glaucoma care - trusting but uncertain and uninformed: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

This study aims to explore patient perspectives regarding their journey to glaucoma care and sought to understand the determinants that guide their access to tertiary glaucoma care.

METHODS

Twenty-nine patients who are glaucoma suspects or had definitive diagnosis of glaucoma were recruited from a large public glaucoma clinic and a private ophthalmology clinic in Sydney. Face-to-face, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted between April and December 2017. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A framework method was used for thematic analysis of the data.

RESULTS

Thematic analysis resulted in the emergence of eight main themes. There was limited patient participation in decision making in their journey to glaucoma care. Consequently, there was great trust placed in the referring clinician. Patients valued their vision and therefore expressed a desire for high-quality care. They placed considerable trust in their specialist but were often unsure how to evaluate the quality of care received. Patients lacked an understanding of the cost of glaucoma care and for some, cost remained a barrier to the access of private care. There were variable experiences with waiting times and the journey to clinic, with many patients making concessions and requiring support to access care.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first qualitative study exploring the perspectives of glaucoma patients in Australia and the determinants of access to care. These findings support and can inform development of patient-centred models of care furthering patient trust and empowerment.

Task sharing: situation analysis about capacity and resources for management of diabetic retinopathy in Pakistan

AIM

To assess the capacity and resources of eye care facilities, using the WHO Health Systems Framework, to manage diabetic retinopathy (DR) through task sharing.

METHODS

Using purposive sampling, four participants (administrators) from four selected hospitals in two provinces in Pakistan were recruited for this cross-sectional study. A survey, to assess the capacity and resources of the selected eye care facilities for the feasibility to adopt task sharing in management of DR to prevent vision loss, was emailed to participants who were asked to complete. Responses to open-ended questions were entered into a Microsoft Excel spread sheet and inductive approach was applied for analysis.

RESULTS

All the surveyed eye care facilities offer eye care services for people with diabetes and DR. All surveyed eye care facilities have a shortage in the number of human resources across all cadres. Optometrists and mid-level eye care workers did not have active roles in DR screening and management in all four hospitals. All the hospitals surveyed did not have a computerized record management system for patients who visit ophthalmologists for eye examinations. Equipment for detection and management of DR were short in number and main users were ophthalmologists. There was no policy for population-based screening program for detection of DR in any of the surveyed hospitals.

CONCLUSION

A system-based approach to manage DR is needed. The capacity of eye care facilities and the potential to improve access of people with diabetes to eye care services can be enhanced through implementation of task sharing.

A collaborative care pathway for patients with suspected angle closure glaucoma spectrum disease

BACKGROUND

Currently, no specific collaborative care pathway exists that distinguishes open angle glaucoma from narrow angle or angle closure disease. This study evaluates a newly developed referral and collaborative care pathway specifically for patients with angle closure spectrum disease.

METHODS

The medical records of consecutive patients referred to the Centre for Eye Health for glaucoma assessment were examined, six months before (Pre Suite) and after (Post Suite) the introduction of a novel referral pathway for anterior chamber angle assessment (Angle Suite). Patient demographic and clinical data, the referral letter and practitioner characteristics were extracted.

RESULTS

Angle Suite (n = 77) patients had an appointment much sooner compared to Pre (n = 383) and Post Suite (n = 425) patients (p < 0.0001). Following the introduction of Angle Suites, there was a reduction of incidental angle closure disease found in routine, non-angle closure glaucoma assessment. Onward referral was required by 36.4 per cent of patients referred for suspected angle closure disease, while the rest could be discharged back into the community (13.0 per cent) or reviewed at the Centre for Eye Health (50.6 per cent). Multinomial logistic regression found that the presence of an angle description in the referral letter improved the true positive rate for angle closure disease (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

The clinical pathway may reduce the number of incidental angle closure patients and improved the timeliness of appropriate clinical care delivered to a subset of patients who may benefit from prompt medical attention. This pathway provides an opportunity for appropriately staffed and equipped collaborative care clinics to reduce the burden on tertiary level ophthalmic facilities.

Ophthalmologist and Optometrist Glaucoma Prescribing Patterns Based on 2015 Medicare Part D Data

PURPOSE

To determine differences in prescribing patterns of glaucoma drugs between ophthalmologists and optometrists in terms of (1) the proportions of generics prescribed when brand-name drugs were also available, (2) the relative proportions of drugs prescribed within a drug class, and (3) the relative frequency of all glaucoma drugs prescribed.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

PARTICIPANTS

All ophthalmologists and optometrists in the United States who prescribed any of the 36 drugs studied through Medicare Part D in 2015.

METHODS

Outcome measures were calculated using Excel 2016 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) based on the 2015 Medicare Part D Prescriber data. The total number of drug claims for 36 glaucoma drugs by all ophthalmologists and optometrists through Medicare Part D in 2015 was determined. These data were then used to calculate, for each drug class, the relative proportions of each drug prescribed by ophthalmologists and optometrists in addition to the proportion of claims that were for the generic drug when at least 1 brand-name alternative was available for both professions.

RESULTS

The difference between ophthalmologists' and optometrists' proportions of claims that were for generics when at least 1 brand-name drug was available was generally less than 1%, with both professions' patients receiving primarily generic drugs. However, patients of both ophthalmologists and optometrists use relatively low proportions of generic betaxolol, brimonidine, travoprost, and bimatoprost (approximately 46%, 58%, 1%, and 0% of claims were for these generics, respectively, when compared with brand-name drugs for both ophthalmologists and optometrists). Within each drug class, ophthalmologists and optometrists generally chose the same drug. Overall, ophthalmologists prescribed a wider range of drugs, but both ophthalmologists and optometrists prescribed latanoprost most often.

CONCLUSIONS

Ophthalmologists and optometrists exhibit similar clinical judgement when choosing a particular drug within a drug class. However, ophthalmologists tend to prescribe more drugs from a wider range of drug classes. Both ophthalmologists and optometrists could prescribe more generic betaxolol, brimonidine, travoprost, and bimatoprost, though generic bimatoprost only became available in 2015.

Self-reported optometric practise patterns in age-related macular degeneration

BACKGROUND

The use of advanced imaging in clinical practice is emerging and the use of this technology by optometrists in assessing patients with age-related macular degeneration is of interest. Therefore, this study explored contemporary, self-reported patterns of practice regarding age-related macular degeneration diagnosis and management using a cross-sectional survey of optometrists in Australia and New Zealand.

METHODS

Practising optometrists were surveyed on four key areas, namely, demographics, clinical skills and experience, assessment and management of age-related macular degeneration. Questions pertaining to self-rated competency, knowledge and attitudes used a five-point Likert scale.

RESULTS

Completed responses were received from 127 and 87 practising optometrists in Australia and New Zealand, respectively. Advanced imaging showed greater variation in service delivery than traditional techniques (such as slitlamp funduscopy) and trended toward optical coherence tomography, which was routinely performed in age-related macular degeneration by 49 per cent of respondents. Optical coherence tomography was also associated with higher self-rated competency, knowledge and perceived relevance to practice than other modalities. Most respondents (93 per cent) indicated that they regularly applied patient symptoms, case history, visual function results and signs from traditional testing, when queried about their management of patients with age-related macular degeneration. Over half (63 per cent) also considered advanced imaging, while 31 per cent additionally considered all of these as well as the disease stage and clinical guidelines. Contrary to the evidence base, 68 and 34 per cent rated nutritional supplements as highly relevant or relevant in early age-related macular degeneration and normal aging changes, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the emergence of multimodal and advanced imaging (especially optical coherence tomography) in the assessment of age-related macular degeneration by optometrists. Clinically significant variations in self-rated test competency and the understanding regarding nutritional supplements for different stages of age-related macular degeneration suggest that further work to up-skill optometrists may be required.

Glaucoma-service provision in Scotland: introduction and need for Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network guidelines

Purpose

To describe the pattern of glaucoma-service delivery in Scotland and identify areas for improvement, taking into account Scottish General Ophthalmic Services (GOS) arrangements and the Eye Care Integration project, and to design Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) guidelines to refine the primary and secondary interface of glaucoma care.

Materials and methods

A glaucoma-survey questionnaire was sent to all consultant glaucomatologists in Scotland. The design of SIGN guidelines was based on the results of the questionnaire using SIGN methodology.

Results

Over 90% of Scottish glaucoma care is triaged and delivered within hospital services. Despite GOS referral, information is variable. There are no consistent discharge practices to the community. These results led to defined research questions that were answered, thus formulating the content of the SIGN guidelines. The guideline covers the assessment of patients in primary care, referral criteria to hospital, discharge criteria from hospital to community, and monitoring of patients at risk of glaucoma.

Conclusion

With increasing age and limitations to hospital resources, refining glaucoma pathways between primary and secondary care has become a necessity. Scotland has unique eye care arrangements with both the GOS and Eye Care Integration project. It is hoped that implementation of SIGN guidelines will identify glaucoma at the earliest opportunity and reduce the rate of false-positive referrals to hospital.

Therapeutic endorsement enhances compliance with national glaucoma guidelines in Australian and New Zealand optometrists

PURPOSE

Previous studies confirmed that optometrists have access to and confidence in applying clinical tests recommended for glaucoma assessment. Less is known about factors best predicting compliance with national clinical guidelines and thus by inference, the provision of suitable care by primary care ophthalmic practitioners. We utilised the unique two-tiered profession (therapeutic and non-therapeutic scope of practice) in Australia and New Zealand to assess the prospective adherence to glaucoma guidelines dependent on the clinician's background.

METHODS

Australian and New Zealand optometrists were surveyed on ophthalmic techniques for glaucoma assessment, criteria for the evaluation of the optic nerve head, glaucoma risk categories and review times while also recording background, training, and experience. Parameters identifying progression/conversion and patients' risk levels were analysed comparatively to ophthalmologists' opinions. Linear regression analysis identified variables significantly improving the likelihood of concordance with guidelines.

RESULTS

Reported application of techniques complied well with glaucoma guidelines although gonioscopy and pachymetry, pupil dilation for optic nerve head examination, and acquisition of permanent records were less frequently employed. The main predictors for entry-level diagnostic standards were therapeutic endorsement together with the associated knowledge of relevant guidance and procedural confidence. Other findings suggested a potential underestimation in the value of optic disc size and intraocular pressure for the prediction of glaucoma risk, while optometrists more frequently relied on the outcomes of non-standardised automated perimetry and auxiliary imaging.

CONCLUSIONS

Optometrists in Australia and New Zealand may not always exercise optimal clinical acumen regarding techniques/criteria for glaucoma diagnosis. Therapeutic endorsement was gradually adopted in different jurisdictions in various forms since 1999 and is mandatory for registration since late 2014. The result of the two-tiered optometric cohorts suggest that inclusion of therapeutic training as part of the core training is likely a key factor to enhanced compliance with glaucoma guidelines. Improved adherence to the current clinical standards should positively impact on the facilitation of appropriate glaucoma diagnosis and management. Obligatory knowledge and possibly accreditation of available guidelines might ensure a uniform standard in glaucoma testing protocols in concordance with compulsory entry-level skills.

Clinical model assisting with the collaborative care of glaucoma patients and suspects

BACKGROUND

Optimizing patient management will reduce unnecessary vision loss in glaucoma through early detection. One method is the introduction of collaborative care schemes between optometrists and ophthalmologists.

DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective study to evaluate the impact of the Centre for Eye Health (CFEH) on glaucoma patient outcomes and management in primary optometric care.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients referred to CFEH by optometrists for a glaucoma assessment were eligible for this study if written consent was provided (500 participants were randomly chosen).

METHODS

Clinical data were classified according to disease risk and implemented patient care and analysed against the original diagnosis and patient parameters, followed by statistical analysis.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Two main parameters were evaluated; suitable referral of patients for glaucoma condition assessment and appropriate implementation of follow-up care.

RESULTS

The majority of patients referred for glaucoma assessment (86.2%) were classified as glaucoma suspects or likely to have glaucoma, indicating suitable referral of patients for a CFEH evaluation. Further, the involvement of CFEH resulted in a false positive rate of 7.8% for those patients who proceeded to ophthalmological care. However, long-term optometric patient care was not maintained for up to a third of primarily lower risk patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The investigated collaborative eye health-care model led to a substantial improvement in appropriate referrals of glaucoma patients to ophthalmologists and could be suitable for optimizing patient care and utilization of resources. Improvement in follow-up of patients by optometrists is required to minimize inappropriately discontinued patient care.