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Yan H, He L, Lv D, Yang J, Yuan Z. The Role of the Dysregulated JNK Signaling Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Human Diseases and Its Potential Therapeutic Strategies: A Comprehensive Review. Biomolecules 2024; 14:243. [PMID: 38397480 PMCID: PMC10887252 DOI: 10.3390/biom14020243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
JNK is named after c-Jun N-terminal kinase, as it is responsible for phosphorylating c-Jun. As a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, JNK is also known as stress-activated kinase (SAPK) because it can be activated by extracellular stresses including growth factor, UV irradiation, and virus infection. Functionally, JNK regulates various cell behaviors such as cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, and metabolic reprogramming. Dysregulated JNK signaling contributes to several types of human diseases. Although the role of the JNK pathway in a single disease has been summarized in several previous publications, a comprehensive review of its role in multiple kinds of human diseases is missing. In this review, we begin by introducing the landmark discoveries, structures, tissue expression, and activation mechanisms of the JNK pathway. Next, we come to the focus of this work: a comprehensive summary of the role of the deregulated JNK pathway in multiple kinds of diseases. Beyond that, we also discuss the current strategies for targeting the JNK pathway for therapeutic intervention and summarize the application of JNK inhibitors as well as several challenges now faced. We expect that this review can provide a more comprehensive insight into the critical role of the JNK pathway in the pathogenesis of human diseases and hope that it also provides important clues for ameliorating disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaying Yan
- Department of Ultrasound, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 610075, China; (H.Y.); (L.H.)
| | - Lanfang He
- Department of Ultrasound, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 610075, China; (H.Y.); (L.H.)
| | - De Lv
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 610075, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Department of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China;
| | - Zhu Yuan
- Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Department of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China;
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Zhao W, Wang W, Xiao Y, Cui F. c-Jun regulates flotillin 2 transcription to benefit viral accumulation in insect vectors. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 152:103894. [PMID: 36535580 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2022.103894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway plays a critical role in viral infection in host cells. In addition to triggering immune reactions against pathogens, the JNK signaling pathway has also been found to benefit viral infection. Our previous work showed that JNK activation facilitated rice stripe virus (RSV) accumulation in the insect vector small brown planthopper, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we revealed a link between JNK activation and the transcriptional upregulation of the plasma membrane protein flotillin 2, which mediates RSV cell entry. c-Jun, a downstream substrate of JNKs, was identified as a transcription factor that targets the promoter of flotillin 2 at three binding sites. Phosphorylated c-Jun, especially at the serine 63 site, promoted the transcriptional activity of c-Jun on flotillin 2. JNK activation or inhibition affected c-Jun phosphorylation status and flotillin 2 expression. In the midguts of planthoppers, RSV infection significantly increased flotillin 2 expression and the phosphorylation level of JNKs and c-Jun. Manipulation of JNK status impacted viral acquisition in midgut cells. These findings reveal a new regulatory mechanism of the JNK signaling pathway and shed light on the virus-supportive effect of this pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yan Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Feng Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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Alloferon and Zanamivir Show Effective Antiviral Activity against Influenza A Virus (H1N1) Infection In Vitro and In Vivo. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010678. [PMID: 36614125 PMCID: PMC9820929 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of vaccines is the most effective and reliable method for the prevention of viral infections. However, research on evaluation of effective therapeutic agents for use in treatment after infection is necessary. Zanamivir was administered through inhalation for treatment of pandemic influenza A/H1N1 in 2009. However, the emergence of drug-resistant strains can occur rapidly. Alloferon, an immunomodulatory drug developed as an NK cell activator, exerts antiviral effects against various viruses, particularly influenza viruses. Therefore, alloferon and zanamivir were administered in combination in an effort to improve the antiviral effect of zanamivir by reducing H1N1 resistance. First, we confirmed that administration of combined treatment would result in effective inhibition of viral proliferation in MDCK and A549 cells infected with H1N1. Production of IL-6 and MIP-1α in these cells and the activity of p38 MAPK and c-Jun that are increased by H1N1 were inhibited by combined treatment. Mice were then infected intranasally with H1N1, and examination of the antiviral efficacy of the alloferon/zanamivir combination was performed. The results showed that combined treatment after infection with H1N1 prevented weight loss, increased the survival rate, and improved lung fibrosis. Combined treatment also resulted in reduced infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages into the lungs. Combined treatment effectively inhibited the activity of p38 MAPK and c-Jun in lung tissue, which was increased by infection with H1N1. Therefore, the combination of alloferon/zanamivir effectively prevents the development of H1N1-mediated inflammation in the lungs by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators and migration of inflammatory cells into lung tissue.
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Chiu YF, Huang YW, Chen CY, Chen YC, Gong YN, Kuo RL, Huang CG, Shih SR. Visualizing Influenza A Virus vRNA Replication. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:812711. [PMID: 35733972 PMCID: PMC9207383 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.812711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) has caused recurrent epidemics and severe pandemics. In this study, we adapted an MS2-MCP live-cell imaging system to visualize IAV replication. A reporter plasmid, pHH-PB2-vMSL, was constructed by replacing a part of the PB2-coding sequence in pHH-PB2 with a sequence encoding 24 copies of a stem-loop structure from bacteriophage MS2 (MSL). Binding of MS2 coat protein (MCP) fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) to MSL enabled the detection of vRNA as fluorescent punctate signals in live-cell imaging. The introduction of pHH-PB2-vMSL into A549 cells transduced to express an MCP-GFP fusion protein lacking the nuclear localization signal (MCP-GFPdN), subsequently allowed tracking of the distribution and replication of PB2-vMSL vRNA after IAV PR8 infection. Spatial and temporal measurements revealed exponential increases in vRNA punctate signal intensity, which was only observed after membrane blebbing in apoptotic cells. Similar signal intensity increases in apoptotic cells were also observed after MDCK cells, transduced to express MCP-GFPdN, were infected with IAV carrying PB2-vMSL vRNA. Notably, PB2-vMSL vRNA replication was observed to occur only in apoptotic cells, at a consistent time after apoptosis initiation. There was a lack of observable PB2-vMSL vRNA replication in non-apoptotic cells, and vRNA replication was suppressed in the presence of apoptosis inhibitors. These findings point to an important role for apoptosis in IAV vRNA replication. The utility of the MS2-imaging system for visualizing time-sensitive processes such as viral replication in live host cells is also demonstrated in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Fang Chiu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Wen Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Yuan Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chia Chen
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Nong Gong
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Rei-Lin Kuo
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Guei Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shin-Ru Shih
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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The Effector Domain of the Influenza A Virus Nonstructural Protein NS1 Triggers Host Shutoff by Mediating Inhibition and Global Deregulation of Host Transcription When Associated with Specific Structures in the Nucleus. mBio 2021; 12:e0219621. [PMID: 34488451 PMCID: PMC8546537 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02196-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Host shutoff in influenza A virus (IAV) infection is a key process contributing to viral takeover of the cellular machinery and resulting in the downregulation of host gene expression. Analysis of nascently transcribed RNA in a cellular model that allows the functional induction of NS1 demonstrates that NS1 suppresses host transcription. NS1 inhibits the expression of genes driven by RNA polymerase II as well as RNA polymerase I-driven promoters, but not by the noneukaryotic T7 polymerase. Additionally, transcriptional termination is deregulated in cells infected with wild-type IAV. The NS1 effector domain alone is able to mediate both effects, whereas NS1 mutant GLEWN184-188RFKRY (184-188) is not. Overexpression of CPSF30 counteracts NS1-mediated inhibition of RNA polymerase II-driven reporter gene expression, but knockdown of CPSF30 expression does not attenuate gene expression. Although NS1 is associated with nuclear chromatin, superresolution microscopy demonstrates that NS1 does not colocalize with genomic DNA. Moreover, NS1 mutants and NS1 fusion proteins, unable to associate with nuclear chromatin and displaying an altered subcellular distribution are still able to attenuate reporter gene expression. However, tethering NS1 artificially to the cytoskeleton results in the loss of reporter gene inhibition. A NS1 deficient in both native nuclear localization signals (NLS) is able to inhibit gene expression as effective as wild-type NS1 when a synthetic NLS relocates it to specific structures of the nucleus. Colocalization experiments and reporter gene cotransfection experiments with a NS1 fusion guiding it to nuclear speckles suggest that the presence of NS1 in nuclear speckles seems to be essential for host shutoff.
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Del Sarto J, Gerlt V, Friedrich ME, Anhlan D, Wixler V, Teixeira MM, Boergeling Y, Ludwig S. Phosphorylation of JIP4 at S730 Presents Antiviral Properties against Influenza A Virus Infection. J Virol 2021; 95:e0067221. [PMID: 34319782 PMCID: PMC8475540 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00672-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is the causative agent of flu disease that results in annual epidemics and occasional pandemics. IAV alters several signaling pathways of the cellular host response in order to promote its replication. Therefore, some of these pathways can serve as targets for novel antiviral agents. Here, we show that c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK)-interacting protein 4 (JIP4) is dynamically phosphorylated in IAV infection. The lack of JIP4 resulted in higher virus titers, with significant differences in viral protein and mRNA accumulation as early as within the first replication cycle. In accordance, decreased IAV titers and protein accumulation were observed during the overexpression of JIP4. Strikingly, the antiviral function of JIP4 does not originate from modulation of JNK or p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways or from altered expression of interferons or interferon-stimulated genes but rather originates from a direct reduction of viral polymerase activity. Furthermore, the interference of JIP4 with IAV replication seems to be linked to the phosphorylation of the serine at position 730 that is sufficient to impede the viral polymerase. Collectively, we provide evidence that JIP4, a host protein modulated in IAV infection, exhibits antiviral properties that are dynamically controlled by its phosphorylation at S730. IMPORTANCE Influenza A virus (IAV) infection is a world health concern, and current treatment options encounter high rates of resistance. Our group investigates host pathways modified in IAV infection as promising new targets. The host protein JIP4 is dynamically phosphorylated in IAV infection. JIP4 absence resulted in higher virus titers and viral protein and mRNA accumulation within the first replication cycle. Accordingly, decreased IAV titers and protein accumulation were observed during JIP4 overexpression. Strikingly, the antiviral function of JIP4 does not originate from modulation of JNK or p38 MAPK pathways or from altered expression of interferons or interferon-stimulated genes but rather originates from a reduction in viral polymerase activity. The interference of JIP4 with IAV replication is linked to the phosphorylation of serine 730. We provide evidence that JIP4, a host protein modulated in IAV infection, exhibits antiviral properties that are dynamically controlled by its phosphorylation at S730.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Del Sarto
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Research Center for Drug Development, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Gerlt
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | | | - Darisuren Anhlan
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Viktor Wixler
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Mauro Martins Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Research Center for Drug Development, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Yvonne Boergeling
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Stephan Ludwig
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
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The Roles of c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase (JNK) in Infectious Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179640. [PMID: 34502556 PMCID: PMC8431791 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are among the most crucial mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and regulate various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammation. Microbes heavily rely on cellular signaling pathways for their effective replication; hence, JNKs may play important roles in infectious diseases. In this review, we describe the basic signaling properties of MAPKs and JNKs in apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammasome activation. Furthermore, we discuss the roles of JNKs in various infectious diseases induced by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, as well as their potential to serve as targets for the development of therapeutic agents for infectious diseases. We expect this review to expand our understanding of the JNK signaling pathway’s role in infectious diseases and provide important clues for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases.
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Tang Y, Yang G, Li Y, Wang M, Li G, Hu Y. Protective effects of SP600125 on mice infected with H1N1 influenza A virus. Arch Virol 2021; 166:2151-2158. [PMID: 34014386 PMCID: PMC8134817 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05103-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) can cause high morbidity and mortality globally every year. Myriad host kinases and their related signaling pathways are involved in IAV infection, and the important role of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway during infection has been demonstrated. SP600125, an inhibitor of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, was found in our previous study to suppress IAV replication in vitro. In this study, we established a mouse model of H1N1 IAV infection and treated the mice with SP600125 to study its protective effect. The results showed that SP600125 treatment reduced the pulmonary inflammatory response, lung injury, and pulmonary viral load and increased the survival rate of H1N1-infected mice. Our data confirm the crucial role of c-Jun N terminal kinase in H1N1 virus replication and inflammatory responses in vivo. Hence, we speculate that SP600125 has a potential antiviral therapeutic benefit against IAV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuling Tang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Guanghui Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuxiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Gebin Li
- Department of Veterinary Internal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yanxin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
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Ludwig S, Hrincius ER, Boergeling Y. The Two Sides of the Same Coin-Influenza Virus and Intracellular Signal Transduction. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:a038513. [PMID: 31871235 PMCID: PMC7778220 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cells respond to extracellular agents by activation of intracellular signaling pathways. Viruses can be regarded as such agents, leading to a firework of signaling inside the cell, primarily induced by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that provoke safeguard mechanisms to defend from the invader. In the constant arms race between pathogen and cellular defense, viruses not only have evolved mechanisms to suppress or misuse supposedly antiviral signaling processes for their own benefit but also actively induce signaling to promote replication. This creates viral dependencies that may be exploited for novel strategies of antiviral intervention. Here, we will summarize the current knowledge of activation and function of influenza virus-induced signaling pathways with a focus on nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades, and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathway. We will discuss the opportunities and drawbacks of targeting these signaling pathways for antiviral intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Ludwig
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Eike R Hrincius
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Yvonne Boergeling
- Institute of Virology Muenster, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany
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Yi E, Oh J, Kang HR, Song MJ, Park SH. BST2 inhibits infection of influenza A virus by promoting apoptosis of infected cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 509:414-420. [PMID: 30594400 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.12.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BST2 is an antiviral factor that inhibits the release of enveloped virus at the plasma membrane via an unusual topology in which its N-terminal is in the cytosol while its C-terminal is anchored by glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI). BST2-deficient cells showed substantially higher release of virions than wild type cells. Influenza-infected BST2-deficient cells showed greatly reduced cytopathic effect (CPE) than wild type cells despite their generally robust virus production. This finding prompted us to determine whether BST2 was involved in the apoptotic process of virus-infected host cells. Our results revealed that BST2 might be involved in IRE1α-mediated ER stress pathway by increasing spliced form XBP-1. Consequently, levels of cytochrome C, caspase-3, caspase-9, and PARP as representative molecules of apoptosis were significantly increased in wild type cells than those in BST2-deficient cells. These results suggest that BST2 might participate in innate host defense by augmenting ER-stress-induced apoptotic signaling to inhibit the replication and spread of virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunbi Yi
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea; ImmunoMax Co., Ltd, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinsoo Oh
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Ri Kang
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Jung Song
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Se-Ho Park
- College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
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