Biphasic regulation of RNA interference during rotavirus infection by modulation of Argonaute2

Anti-Adenoviral Effect of Human Argonaute 2 Alone and in Combination with Artificial microRNAs

During infection, adenoviruses inhibit the cellular RNA interference (RNAi) machinery by saturating the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) of the host cells with large amounts of virus-derived microRNAs (mivaRNAs) that bind to the key component of the complex, Argonaute 2 (AGO2). In the present study, we investigated AGO2 as a prominent player at the intersection between human adenovirus 5 (HAdV-5) and host cells because of its ability to interfere with the HAdV-5 life cycle. First, the ectopic expression of AGO2 had a detrimental effect on the ability of the virus to replicate. In addition, in silico and in vitro analyses suggested that endogenous microRNAs (miRNAs), particularly hsa-miR-7-5p, have similar effects. This miRNA was found to be able to target the HAdV-5 DNA polymerase mRNA. The inhibitory effect became more pronounced upon overexpression of AGO2, likely due to elevated AGO2 levels, which abolished the competition between cellular miRNAs and mivaRNAs for RISC incorporation. Collectively, our data suggest that endogenous miRNAs would be capable of significantly inhibiting viral replication if adenoviruses had not developed a mechanism to counteract this function. Eventually, AGO2 overexpression-mediated relief of the RISC-saturating action of mivaRNAs strongly enhanced the effectiveness of artificial miRNAs (amiRNAs) directed against the HAdV-5 preterminal protein (pTP) mRNA, suggesting a substantial benefit of co-expressing amiRNAs and AGO2 in RNAi-based strategies for the therapeutic inhibition of adenoviruses.

Rotavirus rewires host cell metabolic pathways toward glutamine catabolism for effective virus infection

Rotavirus (RV) accounts for 19.11% of global diarrheal deaths. Though GAVI assisted vaccine introduction has curtailed RV induced mortality, factors like RV strain diversity, differential infantile gut microbiome, malnutrition, interference from maternal antibodies and other administered vaccines, etc. often compromise vaccine efficacy. Herein emerges the need of antivirals which can be administered adjunct to vaccination to curb the socio-economic burden stemming from frequent RV infection. Cognisance of pathogen-perturbed host cellular physiology has revolutionized translational research and aided precision-based therapy, particularly for viruses, with no metabolic machinery of their own. To date there has been limited exploration of the host cellular metabolome in context of RV infection. In this study, we explored the endometabolomic landscape of human intestinal epithelial cells (HT-29) on RV-SA11 infection. Significant alteration of host cellular metabolic pathways like the nucleotide biosynthesis pathway, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism pathway, the host citric acid cycle was observed in RV-SA11 infection scenario. Detailed study further revealed that RV replication is exclusively dependent on glutamine metabolism for their propagation in host cells. Glutamine metabolism generates glutamate, aspartate, and asparagine which facilitates virus infection. Abrogation of aspartate biogenesis from glutamine by use of Aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA), significantly curbed RV-SA11 infection in-vitro and in-vivo. Overall, the study improves our understanding of host-rotavirus interactome and recognizes host glutamine metabolism pathway as a suitable target for effective therapeutic intervention against RV infection.

Rotavirus circumvents the antiviral effects of protein ISGylation via proteasomal degradation of Ube1L

Among the ramified cellular responses elicited in response to pathogenic stimuli, upregulation and covalent conjugation of an Ubiquitin-like modifier ISG15 to lysine residues of target proteins (ISGylation) through sequential action of three enzymes E1 (Ube1L), E2 (Ube2L6) and E3 (Herc5) have emerged as an important regulatory facet governing innate immunity against numerous viral infections. In the present study, we investigated the interplay between host ISGylation system and Rotavirus (RV). We observed that RV infection upregulates the expression of free ISG15 but prevents protein ISGylation. Analysing the expression of ISGylation machinery components revealed that RV infection results in steady depletion of Ube1L protein with the progression of infection. Indeed, restoration of Ube1L expression caused induction in protein ISGylation during RV infection. Subsequent investigation revealed that ectopic expression of RV non-structural protein 5 (NSP5) fosters proteolytic ubiquitylation of Ube1L, thereby depleting it in an ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent manner. Moreover, pan-Cullin inhibition also abrogates proteolytic ubiquitylation and rescued depleted Ube1L in RV-NSP5 expressing cells, suggesting the involvement of host cellular Cullin RING Ligases (CRLs) in proteasomal degradation of Ube1L during RV-SA11 infection. Reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation analyses substantiated a molecular association between Ube1L and RV-NSP5 during infection scenario and also under ectopically overexpressed condition independent of intermediate RNA scaffold and RV-NSP5 hyperphosphorylation. Interestingly, clonal overexpression of Ube1L reduced expression of RV proteins and RV infectivity, which are restored in ISG15 silenced cells, suggesting that Ube1L is a crucial anti-viral host cellular determinant that inhibits RV infection by promoting the formation of ISG15 conjugates.

The RNA Interference Effector Protein Argonaute 2 Functions as a Restriction Factor Against SARS-CoV-2

Argonaute 2 (Ago2) is a key component of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, a gene-regulatory system that is present in most eukaryotes. Ago2 uses microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) for targeting to homologous mRNAs which are then degraded or translationally suppressed. In plants and invertebrates, the RNAi pathway has well-described roles in antiviral defense, but its function in limiting viral infections in mammalian cells is less well understood. Here, we examined the role of Ago2 in replication of the betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2, the etiologic agent of COVID-19. Microscopic analyses of infected cells revealed that a pool of Ago2 closely associates with viral replication sites and gene ablation studies showed that loss of Ago2 resulted in over 1,000-fold increase in peak viral titers. Replication of the alphacoronavirus 229E was also significantly increased in cells lacking Ago2. The antiviral activity of Ago2 was dependent on both its ability to bind small RNAs and its endonuclease function. Interestingly, in cells lacking Dicer, an upstream component of the RNAi pathway, viral replication was the same as in parental cells. This suggests that the antiviral activity of Ago2 is independent of Dicer processed miRNAs. Deep sequencing of infected cells by other groups identified several SARS-CoV-2-derived small RNAs that bind to Ago2. A mutant virus lacking the most abundant ORF7A-derived viral miRNA was found to be significantly less sensitive to Ago2-mediated restriction. This combined with our findings that endonuclease and small RNA-binding functions of Ago2 are required for its antiviral function, suggests that Ago2-small viral RNA complexes target nascent viral RNA produced at replication sites for cleavage. Further studies are required to elucidate the processing mechanism of the viral small RNAs that are used by Ago2 to limit coronavirus replication.

Sneaking into the viral safe-houses: Implications of host components in regulating integrity and dynamics of rotaviral replication factories

The biology of the viral life cycle essentially includes two structural and functional entities—the viral genome and protein machinery constituting the viral arsenal and an array of host cellular components which the virus closely associates with—to ensure successful perpetuation. The obligatory requirements of the virus to selectively evade specific host cellular factors while exploiting certain others have been immensely important to provide the platform for designing host-directed antiviral therapeutics. Although the spectrum of host-virus interaction is multifaceted, host factors that particularly influence viral replication have immense therapeutic importance. During lytic proliferation, viruses usually form replication factories which are specialized subcellular structures made up of viral proteins and replicating nucleic acids. These viral niches remain distinct from the rest of the cellular milieu, but they effectively allow spatial proximity to selective host determinants. Here, we will focus on the interaction between the replication compartments of a double stranded RNA virus rotavirus (RV) and the host cellular determinants of infection. RV, a diarrheagenic virus infecting young animals and children, forms replication bodies termed viroplasms within the host cell cytoplasm. Importantly, viroplasms also serve as the site for transcription and early morphogenesis of RVs and are very dynamic in nature. Despite advances in the understanding of RV components that constitute the viroplasmic architecture, knowledge of the contribution of host determinants to viroplasm dynamicity has remained limited. Emerging evidence suggests that selective host determinants are sequestered inside or translocated adjacent to the RV viroplasms. Functional implications of such host cellular reprogramming are also ramifying—disarming the antiviral host determinants and usurping the pro-viral components to facilitate specific stages of the viral life cycle. Here, we will provide a critical update on the wide variety of host cellular pathways that have been reported to regulate the spatial and temporal dynamicity of RV viroplasms. We will also discuss the methods used so far to study the host-viroplasm interactions and emphasize on the potential host factors which can be targeted for therapeutic intervention in the future.

Treading a HOSTile path: Mapping the dynamic landscape of host cell-rotavirus interactions to explore novel host-directed curative dimensions

Viruses are intracellular pathogens and are dependent on host cellular resources to carry out their cycles of perpetuation. Obtaining an integrative view of host-virus interaction is of utmost importance to understand the complex and dynamic interplay between viral components and host machineries. Besides its obvious scholarly significance, a comprehensive host-virus interaction profile also provides a platform where from host determinants of pro-viral and antiviral importance can be identified and further be subjected to therapeutic intervention. Therefore, adjunct to conventional methods of prophylactic vaccination and virus-directed antivirals, this host-targeted antiviral approach holds promising therapeutic potential. In this review, we present a comprehensive landscape of host cellular reprogramming in response to infection with rotavirus (RV) which causes profuse watery diarrhea in neonates and infants. In addition, an emphasis is given on how host determinants are either usurped or subverted by RV in course of infection and how therapeutic manipulation of specific host factors can effectively modulate the RV life cycle.

Rotaviral nonstructural protein 5 (NSP5) promotes proteasomal degradation of up-frameshift protein 1 (UPF1), a principal mediator of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway, to facilitate infection

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD), a cellular RNA quality system, has been shown to be an ancestral form of cellular antiviral response that can restrict viral infection by targeting viral RNA for degradation or other various mechanisms. In support to this hypothesis, emerging evidences unraveled that viruses have evolved numerous mechanisms to circumvent or modulate the NMD pathway to ensure unhindered replication within the host cell. In this study, we investigated the potential interplay between the cellular NMD pathway and rotavirus (RV). Our data suggested that rotavirus infection resulted in global inhibition of NMD pathway by downregulating the expression of UPF1 in a strain independent manner. UPF1 expression was found to be regulated at the post-transcriptional level by ubiquitin-proteasome mediated degradation pathway. Subsequent studies revealed rotaviral non-structural protein 5 (NSP5) associates with UPF1 and promotes its cullin-dependent proteasome mediated degradation. Furthermore, ectopic expression of UPF1 during RV infection resulted in reduced expression of viral proteins and viral RNAs leading to diminished production of infective rotavirus particles, suggesting the anti-rotaviral role of UPF1. Finally, the delayed degradation kinetics of transfected rotaviral RNA in UPF1 and UPF2 depleted cells and the association of UPF1 and UPF2 with viral RNAs suggested that NMD targets rotaviral RNAs for degradation. Collectively, the present study demonstrates the antiviral role of NMD pathway during rotavirus infection and also reveals the underlying mechanism by which rotavirus overwhelms NMD pathway to establish successful replication.

Rotavirus research: 2014-2020

Rotaviruses are major causes of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide and also cause disease in the young of many other mammalian and of avian species. During the recent 5-6 years rotavirus research has benefitted in a major way from the establishment of plasmid only-based reverse genetics systems, the creation of human and other mammalian intestinal enteroids, and from the wide application of structural biology (cryo-electron microscopy, cryo-EM tomography) and complementary biophysical approaches. All of these have permitted to gain new insights into structure-function relationships of rotaviruses and their interactions with the host. This review follows different stages of the viral replication cycle and summarizes highlights of structure-function studies of rotavirus-encoded proteins (both structural and non-structural), molecular mechanisms of viral replication including involvement of cellular proteins and lipids, the spectrum of viral genomic and antigenic diversity, progress in understanding of innate and acquired immune responses, and further developments of prevention of rotavirus-associated disease.

Ubiquitin-dependent Argonauteprotein MEL1 degradation is essential for rice sporogenesis and phasiRNA target regulation

MEIOSIS ARRESTED AT LEPTOTENE1 (MEL1), a rice (Oryza sativa) Argonaute (AGO) protein, has been reported to function specifically at premeiotic and meiotic stages of germ cell development and is associated with a novel class of germ cell-specific small noncoding RNAs called phased small RNAs (phasiRNAs). MEL1 accumulation is temporally and spatially regulated and is eliminated after meiosis. However, the metabolism and turnover (i.e. the homeostasis) of MEL1 during germ cell development remains unknown. Here, we show that MEL1 is ubiquitinated and subsequently degraded via the proteasome pathway in vivo during late sporogenesis. Abnormal accumulation of MEL1 after meiosis leads to a semi-sterile phenotype. We identified a monocot-specific E3 ligase, XBOS36, a CULLIN RING-box protein, that is responsible for the degradation of MEL1. Ubiquitination at four K residues at the N terminus of MEL1 by XBOS36 induces its degradation. Importantly, inhibition of MEL1 degradation either by XBOS36 knockdown or by MEL1 overexpression prevents the formation of pollen at the microspore stage. Further mechanistic analysis showed that disrupting MEL1 homeostasis in germ cells leads to off-target cleavage of phasiRNA target genes. Our findings thus provide insight into the communication between a monocot-specific E3 ligase and an AGO protein during plant reproductive development.

Progressive Rotavirus Infection Downregulates Redox-Sensitive Transcription Factor Nrf2 and Nrf2-Driven Transcription Units

Eukaryotic cells adopt highly tuned stress response physiology under threats of exogenous stressors including viruses to maintain cellular homeostasis. Not surprisingly, avoidance of cellular stress response pathways is an essential facet of virus-induced obligatory host reprogramming to invoke a cellular environment conducive to viral perpetuation. Adaptive cellular responses to oxidative and electrophilic stress are usually taken care of by an antioxidant defense system, core to which lies the redox-responsive transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and Nrf2-driven transcriptional cascade. Deregulation of host redox balance and redox stress-sensitive Nrf2 antioxidant defense have been reported for many viruses. In the current study, we aimed to study the modulation of the Nrf2-based host cellular redox defense system in response to Rotavirus (RV) infection in vitro. Interestingly, we found that Nrf2 protein levels decline sharply with progression of RV infection beyond an initial upsurge. Moreover, Nrf2 decrease as a whole was found to be accompanied by active nuclear vacuity of Nrf2, resulting in lowered expression of stress-responsive Nrf2 target genes heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1, and superoxide dismutase 1 both in the presence and absence of Nrf2-driven transcriptional inducers. Initial induction of Nrf2 concurred with RV-induced early burst of oxidative stress and therefore was sensitive to treatments with antioxidants. Reduction of Nrf2 levels beyond initial hours, however, was found to be independent of the cellular redox status. Furthermore, increasing the half-life of Nrf2 through inhibition of the Kelch-like erythroid cell-derived protein with CNC homology- (ECH-) associated protein 1/Cullin3-RING Box1-based canonical Nrf2 turnover pathway could not restore Nrf2 levels post RV-SA11 infection. Depletion of the Nrf2/HO-1 axis was subsequently found to be sensitive to proteasome inhibition with concurrent observation of increased K48-linked ubiquitination associated with Nrf2. Together, the present study describes robust downregulation of Nrf2-dependent cellular redox defense beyond initial hours of RV infection, justifying our previous observation of potent antirotaviral implications of Nrf2 agonists.

Biphasic regulation of RNA interference during rotavirus infection by modulation of Argonaute2

RNA interference (RNAi) is an evolutionary ancient innate immune response in plants, nematodes, and arthropods providing natural protection against viral infection. Viruses have also gained counter‐defensive measures by producing virulence determinants called viral‐suppressors‐of‐RNAi (VSRs). Interestingly, in spite of dominance of interferon‐based immunity over RNAi in somatic cells of higher vertebrates, recent reports are accumulating in favour of retention of the antiviral nature of RNAi in mammalian cells. The present study focuses on the modulation of intracellular RNAi during infection with rotavirus (RV), an enteric virus with double‐stranded RNA genome. Intriguingly, a time point‐dependent bimodal regulation of RNAi was observed in RV‐infected cells, where short interfering RNA (siRNA)‐based RNAi was rendered non‐functional during early hours of infection only to be reinstated fully beyond that early infection stage. Subsequent investigations revealed RV nonstructural protein 1 to serve as a putative VSR by associating with and triggering degradation of Argonaute2 (AGO2), the prime effector of siRNA‐mediated RNAi, via ubiquitin–proteasome pathway. The proviral significance of AGO2 degradation was further confirmed when ectopic overexpression of AGO2 significantly reduced RV infection. Cumulatively, the current study presents a unique modulation of host RNAi during RV infection, highlighting the importance of antiviral RNAi in mammalian cells.