1
|
Chen S, Leng P, Guo J, Zhou H. FBXW7 in breast cancer: mechanism of action and therapeutic potential. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2023; 42:226. [PMID: 37658431 PMCID: PMC10474666 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02767-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is one of the frequent tumors that seriously endanger the physical and mental well-being in women. F-box and WD repeat domain-containing 7 (FBXW7) is a neoplastic repressor. Serving as a substrate recognition element for ubiquitin ligase, FBXW7 participates in the ubiquitin-proteasome system and is typically in charge of the ubiquitination and destruction of crucial oncogenic proteins, further performing a paramount role in cell differentiation, apoptosis and metabolic processes. Low levels of FBXW7 cause abnormal stability of pertinent substrates, mutations and/or deletions in the FBXW7 gene have been reported to correlate with breast cancer malignant progression and chemoresistance. Given the lack of an effective solution to breast cancer's clinical drug resistance dilemma, elucidating FBXW7's mechanism of action could provide a theoretical basis for targeted drug exploration. Therefore, in this review, we focused on FBXW7's role in a range of breast cancer malignant behaviors and summarized the pertinent cellular targets, signaling pathways, as well as the mechanisms regulating FBXW7 expression. We also proposed novel perspectives for the exploitation of alternative therapies and specific tumor markers for breast cancer by therapeutic strategies aiming at FBXW7.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Sichuan-Chongqing Co-Construction for Diagnosisand, Treatment of Infectious Diseases Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, College of Medical Technology , Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Ping Leng
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Sichuan-Chongqing Co-Construction for Diagnosisand, Treatment of Infectious Diseases Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, College of Medical Technology , Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jinlin Guo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Sichuan-Chongqing Co-Construction for Diagnosisand, Treatment of Infectious Diseases Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, College of Medical Technology , Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
| | - Hao Zhou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Sichuan-Chongqing Co-Construction for Diagnosisand, Treatment of Infectious Diseases Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, College of Medical Technology , Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
How vitamin E and its derivatives regulate tumour cells via the MAPK signalling pathway?'. Gene 2022; 808:145998. [PMID: 34626718 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2021.145998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In tumour cells, vitamin E and its derivatives play a critical role in the regulation of multiple signalling pathways through their oxidative and nonoxidative functions. To date, there are 8 known natural vitamin E forms and many kinds of derivatives, among which VES and α-TEA have excellent anticancer activities. The MAPK pathway consists of a complex cascade of proteins that control the proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of tumour cells. The MAPK pathway includes four subfamilies, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, p38 MAPK, and ERK5. Most of the proteins in these subfamilies interact with each other in a complex manner. The anticancer function of vitamin E and its derivatives is closely related to the MAPK cascade. Studies have shown that in tumour cells, α-T/γ-T/γ-T3/δ-T3/VES/α-TEA regulated ERK1/2, prevent tumorigenesis, inhibit tumour cell growth and metastasis and induce cell differentiation, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest; γ-T3/δ-T3/VES/α-TEA regulates JNK1/2, induce apoptosis, reduce ceramide synthesis and inhibit proliferation; and γ-T3/δ-T3/VES regulate p38 MAPK and induce apoptosis. This paper reviews the role of vitamin E and its derivatives in the MAPK cascade, and tumour cells are used as a model in an attempt to explore the mechanism of their interactions.
Collapse
|
3
|
Sur D, Gorzo A, Sabarimurugan S, Krishnan SM, Lungulescu CV, Volovat SR, Burz C. A Comprehensive Review of the Use of Antioxidants and Natural Products in Cancer Patients Receiving Anticancer Therapy. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2021; 22:1511-1522. [PMID: 34488590 DOI: 10.2174/1871520621666210901100827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. The side effects of cancer treatment affect the quality of life. Cancer patients search for antioxidant dietary supplements and natural products during or after conventional cancer treatment for the alleviation of side effects, improvement of the benefits of treatment, and promotion of well-being. However, the efficacy and safety of these products remain controversial; moreover, previous data do not support the standardized use of those alternative treatments in clinics. The current study reviewed the manuscripts reporting the administration of antioxidants and natural products during cancer treatment and revised preclinical and clinical studies on various types of cancer. Most of the positive results were obtained from experimental animal models; however, human clinical studies are discouraging in this regard. Therefore, further precise and distinguishable studies are required regarding antioxidant dietary supplementation. Future studies are also needed to clarify dietary supplements' mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics in a suitable cancer patient population that will benefit the therapeutic regimens. Despite the popularity of dietary supplements, clinicians and patients should always consider their potential benefits and risks. Patients should discuss with their physician before taking any dietary antioxidant supplements or natural products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sur
- Department of Medical Oncology, "Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuta" Oncology Institute, Cluj-Napoca. Romania
| | - Alecsandra Gorzo
- Department of Medical Oncology, "Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuta" Oncology Institute, Cluj-Napoca. Romania
| | - Shanthi Sabarimurugan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009. Australia
| | - Saravana Murali Krishnan
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641046. India
| | | | - Simona Ruxandra Volovat
- Department of Medical Oncology-Radiotherapy, Grigore T Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași. Romania
| | - Claudia Burz
- Department of Medical Oncology, "Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuta" Oncology Institute, Cluj-Napoca. Romania
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kumari M, Ramdas P, Radhakrishnan AK, Kutty MK, Haleagrahara N. Tocotrienols Ameliorate Neurodegeneration and Motor Deficits in the 6-OHDA-Induced Rat Model of Parkinsonism: Behavioural and Immunohistochemistry Analysis. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13051583. [PMID: 34068460 PMCID: PMC8150907 DOI: 10.3390/nu13051583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease, which progresses over time, causing pathological depigmentation of the substantia nigra (SN) in the midbrain due to loss of dopaminergic neurons. Emerging studies revealed the promising effects of some nutrient compounds in reducing the risk of PD. One such nutrient compound that possess neuroprotective effects and prevents neurodegeneration is tocotrienol (T3), a vitamin E family member. In the present study, a single dose intracisternal injection of 250 µg 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was used to induce parkinsonism in male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Forty-eight hours post injection, the SD rats were orally supplemented with alpha (α)- and gamma (γ)-T3 for 28 days. The neuroprotective effects of α- and γ-T3 were evaluated using behavioural studies and immunohistochemistry (IHC). The findings from this study revealed that supplementation of α- and γ-T3 was able to ameliorate the motor deficits induced by 6-OHDA and improve the neuronal functions by reducing inflammation, reversing the neuronal degradation, and preventing further reduction of dopaminergic neurons in the SN and striatum (STR) fibre density.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mangala Kumari
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Human Biology, School of Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| | - Premdass Ramdas
- Division of Applied Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology, School of Health Sciences, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia;
| | - Ammu Kutty Radhakrishnan
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor 47500, Malaysia;
| | - Methil Kannan Kutty
- Department of Medicine, Lincoln University College, Kelana Jaya, Selangor 47301, Malaysia;
| | - Nagaraja Haleagrahara
- College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia;
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
de Oliveira VA, Pereira IC, Nogueira TR, Martins JA, Péres-Rodrigues G, de Jesus e Silva de Almendra B, Silva VC, Júnior DD, Leal FL, de Castro e Sousa JM, da Silva FC, de Carvalho Melo Cavalcanti AA, de Azevedo Paiva A. The Role of Vitamin E in Breast Cancer Treatment and Prevention: Current Perspectives. CURRENT NUTRITION & FOOD SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1573401316999200614164711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Regarding the multifactorial etiology of breast cancer, food choices, as well
as dietary intake, are the main modified factors in cancer prevention. In this sense, understanding
molecular pathways involved in breast cancer proliferation can help determine the mechanisms of
action of organic compounds such as antioxidant vitamins that are known to protect against cancer.
Objective:
Assess the mechanism of action of vitamin E in breast cancer modulation, with emphasis
on important markers of tumor development.
Methods:
It is a systematic review carried out in PubMed and Web of Science databases, from the
last 5 years, in Portuguese, English and Spanish. The following terms were selected according to The
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH): “breast cancer” OR “breast neoplasms”, “tocopherol” OR
“tocotrienols” OR “vitamin E”, as equated terms.
Results:
A total of 595 articles were found and 25 were selected according to inclusion criteria.
Vitamin E has been related to suppression/overexpression of important tumorigenic pathways,
mainly associated with proliferation, energy metabolism, chemosensitivity and invasion/metastasis.
Clinical studies of vitamin E supplementation are needed to assess the dose/response effect on breast
cancer patients.
Conclusion:
The safety of vitamin E supplementation is still controversial due to current studies design
available. However, when vitamin E is supplemented, the dose and therapeutic regimen must be
carefully decided, including the route of administration and breast cancer subtypes to enhance
desired effects and minimize unwanted side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor A. de Oliveira
- Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Irislene C. Pereira
- Postgraduate Program in Food and Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Thaís R. Nogueira
- Postgraduate Program in Food and Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Jorddam A. Martins
- Postgraduate Program in Food and Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | | | | | - Vladimir C. Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Dalton D. Júnior
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Francisco L.T. Leal
- Department of Biophysics and Physiology, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Joáo M. de Castro e Sousa
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Felipe C.C. da Silva
- Department of Biology, Federal University of Piaui, UFPI, Piaui State, Picos, Brazil
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fontana F, Raimondi M, Marzagalli M, Moretti RM, Marelli MM, Limonta P. Tocotrienols and Cancer: From the State of the Art to Promising Novel Patents. Recent Pat Anticancer Drug Discov 2019; 14:5-18. [PMID: 30652648 DOI: 10.2174/1574892814666190116111827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tocotrienols (TTs) are vitamin E derivatives naturally occurring in several plants and vegetable oils. Like Tocopherols (TPs), they comprise four isoforms, α, β, γ and δ, but unlike TPs, they present an unsaturated isoprenoid chain. Recent studies indicate that TTs provide important health benefits, including neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, cholesterol lowering and immunomodulatory effects. Moreover, they have been found to possess unique anti-cancer properties. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this review is to present an overview of the state of the art of TTs role in cancer prevention and treatment, as well as to describe recent patents proposing new methods for TTs isolation, chemical modification and use in cancer prevention and/or therapy. METHODS Recent literature and patents focusing on TTs anti-cancer applications have been identified and reviewed, with special regard to their scientific impact and novelty. RESULTS TTs have demonstrated significant anti-cancer activity in multiple tumor types, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, they have shown synergistic effects when given in combination with standard anti-cancer agents or other anti-tumor natural compounds. Finally, new purification processes and transgenic sources have been designed in order to improve TTs production, and novel TTs formulations and synthetic derivatives have been developed to enhance their solubility and bioavailability. CONCLUSION The promising anti-cancer effects shown by TTs in several preclinical studies may open new opportunities for therapeutic interventions in different tumors. Thus, clinical trials aimed at confirming TTs chemopreventive and tumor-suppressing activity, particularly in combination with standard therapies, are urgently needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Fontana
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Michela Raimondi
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Monica Marzagalli
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberta M Moretti
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Marina Montagnani Marelli
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Excellence, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang XN, Su XX, Cheng SQ, Sun ZY, Huang ZS, Ou TM. MYC modulators in cancer: a patent review. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2019; 29:353-367. [PMID: 31068032 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2019.1612878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The important role of MYC in tumorigenesis makes it particularly important to design MYC modulators. Over the past decade, researchers have raised a number of strategies for designing MYC modulators, some of which are already in clinical trials. This paper aims to review the patents of MYC modulators. AREAS COVERED The important biological relevance of c-MYC and the regulation pathways related to c-MYC are briefly introduced. Base on that, the MYC modulators reported in published patents and references primarily for cancer treatment are outlined, highlighting the structures and biological activities. EXPERT OPINION There has been a growing awareness of finding and designing MYC modulators as novel anticancer drugs over recent years. Patents involving the discovery, synthesis, and application of MYC modulators are particularly important for further development in this field. Although finding direct MYC inhibitors or binders is challenging, MYC cannot be simply defined as an undruggable target. There is still substantial evidence proving the concept that MYC modulators can benefit to the treatment of both human hematological malignancies and solid tumors. More efforts should be taken to improve the activity and specificity of MYC modulators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Na Wang
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Xiao-Xuan Su
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Sui-Qi Cheng
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Zhi-Yin Sun
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Zhi-Shu Huang
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| | - Tian-Miao Ou
- a School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Vitamin E and cancer: an update on the emerging role of γ and δ tocotrienols. Eur J Nutr 2019; 59:845-857. [PMID: 31016386 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-019-01962-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, the latter still remains a fatal disease due to the lack of prevention, early diagnosis, and effective drugs. Radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery are not only expensive but produce a number of side effects that are detrimental to the patients' quality of life. Therefore, there is a great need to discover anti-cancer therapies that are specific to cancer cells and affordable, safe, and well tolerated by the patients. Vitamin E is a potential candidate due to its safety. Accumulating evidence on the anti-cancer potency of vitamin E has shifted the focus from tocopherols (TOCs) to tocotrienols (TTs). γ-TT and δ-TT have the highest anti-cancer activities and target common molecular pathways involved in the inhibition of the cell cycle, the induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and the inhibition of invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Future directions should focus on further investigating how γ-TT and δ-TT (solely or in combination) induce anti-cancer molecular pathways when used in the presence of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs. These studies should be carried out in vitro, and promising results and combinations should then be assessed in in vivo experiments and finally in clinical trials. Finally, future research should focus on further evaluating the roles of γ-TT and δ-TT in the chemoprevention of cancer.
Collapse
|
9
|
Dronamraju V, Ibrahim BA, Briski KP, Sylvester PW. γ-Tocotrienol Suppression of the Warburg Effect Is Mediated by AMPK Activation in Human Breast Cancer Cells. Nutr Cancer 2019; 71:1214-1228. [PMID: 30955359 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2019.1599969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cell metabolism is characterized by aerobic glycolysis or the "Warburg effect". Enhanced Akt signaling is associated with activation of various downstream enzymes involved in the glycolytic process, whereas activation of 5'-AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) acts to terminate energy expending mechanisms and decrease glycolytic enzyme expression. Studies were conducted to determine if the anticancer effects of γ-tocotrienol, are mediated through a suppression in aerobic glycolysis. Results show that treatment with 0-7 μM γ-tocotrienol throughout a 4-day culture period resulted in a dose-responsive increase in AMPK activation, and corresponding decrease in Akt activity in human MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. γ-Tocotrienol treatment was also found to induce a dose-responsive decrease in phosphorylated-Fox03 (inactivated), a transcription factor that acts to inhibit in the levels of glycolytic enzyme, and this decrease was associated with a reduction in glycolytic enzyme levels and activity, as well as glucose consumption in these cells. PCR microarray analysis shows that γ-tocotrienol treatment decreases the expression of genes associate with metabolic signaling and glycolysis in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. In summary, these findings demonstrate that the anticancer effects of γ-tocotrienol are mediated, at least in part, by a suppression in the Warburg effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Baher A Ibrahim
- College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe , Monroe , Louisiana , USA
| | - Karen P Briski
- College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe , Monroe , Louisiana , USA
| | - Paul W Sylvester
- College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe , Monroe , Louisiana , USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Tham SY, Loh HS, Mai CW, Fu JY. Tocotrienols Modulate a Life or Death Decision in Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E372. [PMID: 30654580 PMCID: PMC6359475 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20020372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignancy often arises from sophisticated defects in the intricate molecular mechanisms of cells, rendering a complicated molecular ground to effectively target cancers. Resistance toward cell death and enhancement of cell survival are the common adaptations in cancer due to its infinite proliferative capacity. Existing cancer treatment strategies that target a single molecular pathway or cancer hallmark fail to fully resolve the problem. Hence, multitargeted anticancer agents that can concurrently target cell death and survival pathways are seen as a promising alternative to treat cancer. Tocotrienols, a minor constituent of the vitamin E family that have previously been reported to induce various cell death mechanisms and target several key survival pathways, could be an effective anticancer agent. This review puts forward the potential application of tocotrienols as an anticancer treatment from a perspective of influencing the life or death decision of cancer cells. The cell death mechanisms elicited by tocotrienols, particularly apoptosis and autophagy, are highlighted. The influences of several cell survival signaling pathways in shaping cancer cell death, particularly NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, MAPK, and Wnt, are also reviewed. This review may stimulate further mechanistic researches and foster clinical applications of tocotrienols via rational drug designs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiau-Ying Tham
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Hwei-San Loh
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Selangor, Malaysia.
- Biotechnology Research Centre, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Chun-Wai Mai
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia.
- Centre for Cancer and Stem Cell Research, Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia.
| | - Ju-Yen Fu
- Nutrition Unit, Product Development and Advisory Services Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Montagnani Marelli M, Marzagalli M, Fontana F, Raimondi M, Moretti RM, Limonta P. Anticancer properties of tocotrienols: A review of cellular mechanisms and molecular targets. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:1147-1164. [PMID: 30066964 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin E is composed of two groups of compounds: α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols (TPs), and the corresponding unsaturated tocotrienols (TTs). TTs are found in natural sources such as red palm oil, annatto seeds, and rice bran. In the last decades, TTs (specifically, γ-TT and δ-TT) have gained interest due to their health benefits in chronic diseases, based on their antioxidant, neuroprotective, cholesterol-lowering, anti-inflammatory activities. Several in vitro and in vivo studies pointed out that TTs also exert a significant antitumor activity in a wide range of cancer cells. Specifically, TTs were shown to exert antiproliferative/proapoptotic effects and to reduce the metastatic or angiogenic properties of different cancer cells; moreover, these compounds were reported to specifically target the subpopulation of cancer stem cells, known to be deeply involved in the development of resistance to standard therapies. Interestingly, recent studies pointed out that TTs exert a synergistic antitumor effect on cancer cells when given in combination with either standard antitumor agents (i.e., chemotherapeutics, statins, "targeted" therapies) or natural compounds with anticancer activity (i.e., sesamin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), resveratrol, ferulic acid). Based on these observations, different TT synthetic derivatives and formulations were recently developed and demonstrated to improve TT water solubility and to reduce TT metabolism in cancer cells, thus increasing their biological activity. These promising results, together with the safety of TT administration in healthy subjects, suggest that these compounds might represent a new chemopreventive or anticancer treatment (i.e., in combination with standard therapies) strategy. Clinical trials aimed at confirming this antitumor activity of TTs are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Montagnani Marelli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Monica Marzagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Fontana
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Michela Raimondi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberta Manuela Moretti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Tocotrienols: The promising analogues of vitamin E for cancer therapeutics. Pharmacol Res 2018; 130:259-272. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
13
|
Bivona JJ, Patel S, Vajdy M. Induction of cellular and molecular Immunomodulatory pathways by vitamin E and vitamin C. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2017; 17:1539-1551. [PMID: 28905653 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2017.1375096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Vitamins E and C are well known small molecules that have been used to maintain health for decades. Recent studies of the cellular and molecular pathways leading to immunomodulation by these molecules have been of interest, as have their anti-oxidant properties and signal transduction pathways for curing or improving infectious diseases and cancer. Areas covered: Herein, the authors provide a definition and the structural classification of vitamins E and C and how these molecules influence cellular function. The studies include in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo studies in animal models as well as clinical trials. The authors give particular focus to the scientifically factual and putative roles of these molecules in innate and adaptive immunomodulation and prevention or cure of diseases. Expert opinion: The antioxidant properties of vitamins E and C are well studied. However, whether there is a link between their antioxidant and immunomodulation properties is unclear. In addition, there is a strong, albeit putative, prevailing notion that vitamin C can prevent or cure infectious diseases or cancer. Presently, while there is proven evidence that vitamin E possesses immunomodulatory properties that may play a positive role in disease outcomes, this evidence is less available for vitamin C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Bivona
- a EpitoGenesis, Inc , Vernon , CT , USA.,b Department of Medicine , University of Vermont , Burlington , VT , USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Alawin OA, Ahmed RA, Dronamraju V, Briski KP, Sylvester PW. γ-Tocotrienol-induced disruption of lipid rafts in human breast cancer cells is associated with a reduction in exosome heregulin content. J Nutr Biochem 2017; 48:83-93. [PMID: 28797930 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of heregulin, a potent ligand that activates HER3 and HER4 receptors, plays a significant role in the development of chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer patients. Exosomes released from cancer cells are small vesicles originating from the outward budding of lipid rafts that carry various mitogenic proteins that then act locally in an autocrine/paracrine manner to stimulate cancer cell growth. Since the anticancer activity of γ-tocotrienol has been shown to be mediated in part through the disruption of lipid rafts, studies were conducted to determine the effect of γ-tocotrienol on exosomes mitogenic biopotency. Exosomes isolated from the media of cultured T47D breast cancer cells were found to stimulate T47D cell growth in a dose-dependent manner. These growth stimulating effects were due to the high levels of heregulin contained in the exosomes that act to stimulate HER3 and HER4 activation, heterodimerization and mitogenic signaling. Exposure to 5 μM γ-tocotrienol resulted in the selective accumulation and disruption in the integrity of the lipid raft microdomain and a corresponding decrease in exosome heregulin content and mitogenic biopotency. These findings provide strong evidence indicating that the anticancer effects of γ-tocotrienol are mediated, at least in part, by directly disrupting HER dimerization and signaling within the lipid rafts and indirectly by reducing exosome heregulin content and subsequent autocrine/paracrine mitogenic stimulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Osama A Alawin
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe, LA 71209, USA
| | - Rayan A Ahmed
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe, LA 71209, USA
| | | | - Karen P Briski
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe, LA 71209, USA
| | - Paul W Sylvester
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe, LA 71209, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Limon-Miro AT, Lopez-Teros V, Astiazaran-Garcia H. Dietary Guidelines for Breast Cancer Patients: A Critical Review. Adv Nutr 2017; 8:613-623. [PMID: 28710147 PMCID: PMC5502868 DOI: 10.3945/an.116.014423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Current dietary guidelines for breast cancer patients (BCPs) fail to address adequate dietary intakes of macro- and micronutrients that may improve patients' nutritional status. This review includes information from the PubMed and Biomed Central databases over the last 15 y concerning dietary guidelines for BCPs and the potential impact of a personalized, nutrient-specific diet on patients' nutritional status during and after antineoplastic treatment. Results indicated that BCPs should receive a nutritional assessment immediately after diagnosis. In addition, they should be encouraged to pursue and maintain a healthy body weight [body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2) 20-24.9], preserving their lean mass and avoiding an increase in fat mass. Therefore, after nutritional status diagnosis, a conservative energy restriction of 500-1000 kcal/d could be considered in the dietary intervention when appropriate. Based on the reviewed information, we propose a personalized nutrition intervention for BCPs during and after antineoplastic treatment. Specifications in the nutritional therapy should be based on the patients' nutritional status, dietary habits, schedule, activities, and cultural preferences. BCPs' daily energy intake should be distributed as follows: <30% fat/d (mainly monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids), ∼55% carbohydrates (primarily whole foods such as oats, brown rice, and fruits), and 1.2-1.5 g protein ⋅ kg-1 ⋅ d-1 to avoid sarcopenic obesity. Findings suggest that 5-9 servings/d of fruits (∼150 g/serving) and vegetables (∼75 g/serving) should be encouraged. Garlic and cruciferous vegetables must also be part of the nutrition therapy. Adequate dietary intakes of food-based macro- and micronutrients rich in β-carotene and vitamins A, E, and C can both prevent deterioration in BCPs' nutritional status and improve their overall health and prognosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Teresa Limon-Miro
- Department of Nutrition, Research Center for Food and Development, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico; and
| | - Veronica Lopez-Teros
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3 (MKK3) is a dual threonine/tyrosine protein kinase that regulates inflammation, proliferation and apoptosis through specific phosphorylation and activation of the p38 MAPK. However, the role of MKK3 beyond p38-signaling remains elusive. Recently, we reported a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of cancer-associated genes, termed OncoPPi, as a resource for the scientific community to generate new biological models. Analysis of the OncoPPi connectivity identified MKK3 as one of the major hub proteins in the network. Here, we show that MKK3 interacts with a large number of proteins critical for cell growth and metabolism, including the major oncogenic driver MYC. Multiple complementary approaches were employed to demonstrate the direct interaction of MKK3 with MYC in vitro and in vivo. Computational modeling and experimental studies mapped the interaction interface to the MYC helix-loop-helix domain and a novel 15-residue MYC-binding motif in MKK3 (MBM). The MBM in MKK3 is distinct from the known binding sites for p38 or upstream kinases. Functionally, MKK3 stabilized MYC protein, enhanced its transcriptional activity and increased expression of MYC-regulated genes. The defined MBM peptide mimicked the MKK3 effect in promoting MYC activity. Together, the exploration of OncoPPi led to a new biological model in which MKK3 operates by two distinct mechanisms in cellular regulation through its phosphorylation of p38 and its activation of MYC through protein-protein interaction.
Collapse
|
17
|
Algayadh IG, Dronamraju V, Sylvester PW. Role of Rac1/WAVE2 Signaling in Mediating the Inhibitory Effects of γ-Tocotrienol on Mammary Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion. Biol Pharm Bull 2017; 39:1974-1982. [PMID: 27904039 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b16-00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The majority of breast cancer deaths result from the progression of this disease to a metastatic phenotype. Rac1 and Cdc42 are Rho family members that together with their downstream effectors, Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein-family verprolin-homologous protein 2 (WAVE2) and Arp2/3, play an important role in cytoskeletal reorganization and the formation of membrane protrusions that promote cancer cell migration and invasion. γ-Tocotrienol, is a natural isoform within the vitamin E family of compounds that inhibits breast cancer cell growth and progression by suppressing various signaling pathways involved in mitogenic signaling and metastatic progression. Studies were conducted to examine the effects of γ-tocotrienol on Rac1/WAVE2 signaling dependent migration and invasion in highly metastatic mouse +SA and human MDA-MB-231 mammary cancer cells. Exposure to γ-tocotrienol resulted in a dose-responsive decrease in Rac1/WAVE2 signaling as characterized by a suppression in the levels of Rac1/Cdc42, phospho-Rac1/Cdc42, WAVE2, Arp2, and Arp3 expression. Additional studies also demonstrated that similar treatment with γ-tocotrienol resulted in a significant reduction in tumor cell migration and invasion. Taken together, these findings indicate that γ-tocotrienol treatment effectively inhibits Rac1/WAVE2 signaling and reduces metastatic phenotypic expression in mammary cancer cells, suggesting that γ-tocotrienol may provide some benefit as a novel therapeutic approach in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer.
Collapse
|
18
|
Parajuli P, Tiwari RV, Sylvester PW. Anticancer Effects of γ-Tocotrienol Are Associated with a Suppression in Aerobic Glycolysis. Biol Pharm Bull 2016; 38:1352-60. [PMID: 26328490 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b15-00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Aerobic glycolysis is an established hallmark of cancer. Neoplastic cells display increased glucose consumption and a corresponding increase in lactate production compared to the normal cells. Aerobic glycolysis is regulated by the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/ mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, as well as by oncogenic transcription factors such as c-Myc and hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α). γ-Tocotrienol is a natural isoform within the vitamin E family of compounds that displays potent antiproliferative and apoptotic activity against a wide range of cancer cell types at treatment doses that have little or no effect on normal cell viability. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of γ-tocotrienol on aerobic glycolysis in mouse +SA and human MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Treatment with γ-tocotrienol resulted in a dose-responsive inhibition of both +SA and MCF-7 mammary tumor cell growth, and induced a relatively large reduction in glucose utilization, intracellular ATP production and extracellular lactate excretion. These effects were also associated with a large decrease in enzyme expression levels involved in regulating aerobic glycolysis, including hexokinase-II, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase M2, and lactate dehydrogenase A. γ-Tocotrienol treatment was also associated with a corresponding reduction in the levels of phosphorylated (active) Akt, phosphorylated (active) mTOR, and c-Myc, but not HIF-1α or glucose transporter 1 (GLUT-1). In summary, these findings demonstrate that the antiproliferative effects of γ-tocotrienol are mediated, at least in the part, by the concurrent inhibition of Akt/mTOR signaling, c-Myc expression and aerobic glycolysis.
Collapse
|
19
|
Ahmed RA, Alawin OA, Sylvester PW. γ-Tocotrienol reversal of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in human breast cancer cells is associated with inhibition of canonical Wnt signalling. Cell Prolif 2016; 49:460-70. [PMID: 27323693 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.12270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Frizzled-7 (FZD7) receptor-dependent activation of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway plays a crucial role in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and breast cancer metastasis. FZD7 and its co-receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6), are highly expressed in MDA-MB-231 and T-47D breast cancer cells, and endogenous ligands for FZD7 include Wnt3a and Wnt5a/b. γ-Tocotrienol, a natural isoform of vitamin E, inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation and EMT. Here, studies have been conducted to investigate the role of the canonical Wnt pathway in mediating inhibitory effects of γ-tocotrienol on EMT in human breast cancer cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS MDA-MB-231, T-47D and MCF-10A cells were maintained in serum-free defined media containing selected doses of γ-tocotrienol. Cell viability was determined using the MTT colorimetric assay, Western blot analysis was used to measure protein expression and the wound-healing assay was employed to study cell mobility and migration. Immunohistochemical fluorescence staining visualized expression and localization of EMT cell markers. RESULTS γ-Tocotrienol was found to induce dose-responsive inhibition of MDA-MB-231 and T-47D cell growth at doses that had no effect on immortalized normal MCF-10A mammary epithelial cells. These growth inhibitory effects were associated with suppression in canonical Wnt signalling, reversal of EMT and significant reduction in breast cancer cell motility. CONCLUSIONS γ-Tocotrienol suppression of metastatic breast cancer cell proliferation and EMT was associated with suppression of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R A Ahmed
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA, USA
| | - O A Alawin
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA, USA
| | - P W Sylvester
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Xia W, Mo H. Potential of tocotrienols in the prevention and therapy of Alzheimer's disease. J Nutr Biochem 2015; 31:1-9. [PMID: 27133418 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Currently there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease (AD); clinical trials are underway to reduce amyloid generation and deposition, a neuropathological hallmark in brains of AD patients. While genetic factors and neuroinflammation contribute significantly to AD pathogenesis, whether increased cholesterol level is a causative factor or a result of AD is equivocal. Prenylation of proteins regulating neuronal functions requires mevalonate-derived farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). The observation that the levels of FPP and GGPP, but not that of cholesterol, are elevated in AD patients is consistent with the finding that statins, competitive inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase, reduce FPP and GGPP levels and amyloid β protein production in preclinical studies. Retrospective studies show inverse correlations between incidence of AD and the intake and serum levels of the HMG CoA reductase-suppressive tocotrienols; tocopherols show mixed results. Tocotrienols, but not tocopherols, block the processing and nuclear localization of sterol regulatory element binding protein-2, the transcriptional factor for HMG CoA reductase and FPP synthase, and enhance the degradation of HMG CoA reductase. Consequently, tocotrienols deplete the pool of FPP and GGPP and potentially blunt prenylation-dependent AD pathogenesis. The antiinflammatory activity of tocotrienols further contributes to their protection against AD. The mevalonate- and inflammation-suppressive activities of tocotrienols may represent those of an estimated 23,000 mevalonate-derived plant secondary metabolites called isoprenoids, many of which are neuroprotective. Tocotrienol-containing plant foods and tocotrienol derivatives and formulations with enhanced bioavailability may offer a novel approach in AD prevention and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weiming Xia
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, ENR Memorial Veterans Hospital, Bedford, MA.
| | - Huanbiao Mo
- Department of Nutrition, Byrdine F. Lewis School of Nursing and Health Professions, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA; Center for Obesity Reversal, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Drotleff AM, Büsing A, Willenberg I, Empl MT, Steinberg P, Ternes W. HPLC Separation of Vitamin E and Its Oxidation Products and Effects of Oxidized Tocotrienols on the Viability of MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells in Vitro. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:8930-8939. [PMID: 26405759 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Tocotrienols, a vitamin E subgroup, exert potent anticancer effects, but easily degrade due to oxidation. Eight vitamin E reference compounds, α-, β-, γ-, or δ-tocopherols or -tocotrienols, were thermally oxidized in n-hexane. The corresponding predominantly dimeric oxidation products were separated from the parent compounds by diol-modified normal-phase HPLC-UV and characterized by mass spectroscopy. The composition of test compounds, that is, α-tocotrienol, γ-tocotrienol, or palm tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF), before and after thermal oxidation was determined by HPLC-DAD, and MCF-7 cells were treated with both nonoxidized and oxidized test compounds for 72 h. Whereas all nonoxidized test compounds (0-100 μM) led to dose-dependent decreases in cell viability, equimolar oxidized α-tocotrienol had a weaker effect, and oxidized TRF had no such effect. However, the IC50 value of oxidized γ-tocotrienol was lower (85 μM) than that of nonoxidized γ-tocotrienol (134 μM), thereby suggesting that γ-tocotrienol oxidation products are able to reduce tumor cell viability in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid M Drotleff
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Anne Büsing
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ina Willenberg
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael T Empl
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Pablo Steinberg
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Waldemar Ternes
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and ‡Department of Food Toxicology, Center for Food Sciences, Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation , Bischofsholer Damm 15, D-30173 Hannover, Germany
| |
Collapse
|